Ethics of Biotechnology

Biotechnology is broadly defined as any kind of technology that makes use of living systems to create products and solve problems. As technology in the biological science realm has taken off at an increasingly fast rate over the past few decades, countless ethical questions surrounding the use of these technologies have been raised and debated. Ethics is defined by the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics as standards of right and wrong that underlie what people "should" do in different scenarios. In the context of biotechnology, points of ethical concern have been raised in six main realms: safety, liberty, justice, environmental nature, human nature, and religious beliefs. The lines dividing what is right and wrong have been blurred by modern technological advancements involving topics such as gene editing, customer-facing genetic testing, and stem cell research. This article will focus on some of the ethical concerns at the forefront of debate within the modern biotechnology industry.

Background

While the concept of modern biotechnology is largely associated with relatively recent developments in science and technology in the past few decades, humans have been using biological systems to develop products and assist processes for thousands of years. The first examples of biotechnology in civilization include early food science and bread-making, alcohol fermentation, and food preservation. The development of a redefined meaning of biotechnology in the modern era is a product of 20th century advancements in recombinant DNA technology, also known as genetic engineering.

Developments in modern biotechnology began taking off in the early 1950s with the discovery of the double-helix DNA structure by James Watson and Francis Crick. In 1966, another major development took place when researchers uncovered the genetic code. The "dawn of biotech" began in the 1970s when companies began to apply the new knowledge of genes and DNA experimentation. The company Genentech, established in 1976 by Robert A. Swanson and Herbert W. Boyer, is largely credited as the frontrunner pharmaceutical company to commercialize DNA editing technology. In 1980, the US Supreme Court determined that genetically altered life forms could be patented, allowing companies to exploit and profit off of biotechnology advances. In the few decades that followed, new discoveries in biotechnology became increasingly fast-paced as the field rapidly grew and evolved. Some of the most groundbreaking developments from this time period included the ability to treat diseases through new biotech-derived drugs, the identification of genes that allowed for new treatments for cystic fibrosis and multiple sclerosis, and the completion of the human genome sequence which allowed for new treatments for genetic-based diseased such as cancer, heart disease, and Alzheimer's. Today, numerous biotechnology companies are at the forefront of modern genetic engineering technology, including Gilead Sciences, Amgen, Celgene, and Biogen Idec.

The first concerns for an ethical framework in biotechnology research and production began to take place in 1990, after the first instance of gene therapy was used to treat ADA deficiency (an immunological disorder) in a four-year-old girl. As gene therapy involves editing the basic instructions of DNA creation in the human body, people began to pose ethical questions involving where we draw the line between helping sick people and using the new technology for "enhancement". Additionally, concerns about whether this technology would only be available to the wealthy were raised. In 2002, after numerous advances in stem cell research and cloning, President Bush introduced the Council on Bioethics to oversee and advise him on issues in the biotechnology ethics realm. In 2012, the revolutionary technology CRISPR was discovered and published, introducing a new tool for editing DNA. This new tool for genetic alteration raised a new system for disease treatment and DNA manipulation with MIT Technology Review calling CRISPR 'the major biotech discovery of the century'. CRISPR technology has remained one of the most controversial developments in biotech of the past few decades. In 2015, a group of scientists began advocating for limited use of CRISPR technology until after ethical and moral considerations had been taken. Other scientists disagreed with this viewpoint, arguing for moving forward completely to continue life-changing research that could cure diseases and save millions of lives.

Biotechnology Laws

As modern biotechnology took off in the latter half of the 20th century, the US government began to take notice of ethical considerations and moral regulations that need to be considered in the context of this research. The federal government has implemented numerous laws and regulatory committees to oversee biotech companies in their research, creation, and uses of new technologies to ensure a standardized system that takes ethical considerations into account.