Video Surveillance
Video surveillance, otherwise known as closed circuit television (CCTV), uses cameras to record or transmit video signal to a specified destination for observation, recording, and playback. Video records are crucial to solving crimes, both commercially and on private property. Thus, surveillance systems are installed within and outside homes and businesses. Video cameras are also often used in the workplace to ensure that employees are behaving appropriately and working efficiently.
Video surveillance has been widely utilized to improve safety in public places, particularly in large cities. As the popularity of video surveillance has increased and technology has become more advanced, making it easier to covertly record one’s surroundings, privacy concerns have grown increasingly prevalent.
History
CCTV was first implemented in 1942 in order for scientists to view the launch of V2 rockets in Germany[1]. Following its initial implementation, by the late 1950s, video surveillance technology was used by several companies in the U.S. for education, medical, and industrial purposes.[1] The ability to record the transmitted signal, eliminating the need for constant monitoring, was not developed until 1951. [2]Public surveillance became more common in the 1960s when Olean, New York became the first city to use video cameras to monitor the streets in 1968, and the first home security surveillance system patented by Marie Van Brittan Brown in 1969[2] In 1996, the first IP (Internet Protocol) camera enabled video to be sent and received via computer networks.[2]
Crime Surveillance
Despite being criticized for potential privacy issues, video surveillance has been helpful in detecting and solving crime. The UK supposedly has one camera for every 11 people [3], and for every 1000 cameras in London one crime is solved[4].
While often times successful at deterring crime in certain cities, it has been shown to not cut down on crime in all areas, many times because criminals don't believe that the cameras were being monitored and that police would not follow through. In such cases it has been shown that the costs outweigh the benefits of installing cameras .[5].
Technology
IP Cameras
In 1996, Axis Communications released the first surveillance cameras that use computer networks and the Internet to transmit signal.[1] Rather than use voltage to transmit signal as its predecessors did, IP Cameras transmit information via the TCP/IP Protocol, which enables two-way communication, remote control of the surveillance device, encrypted transmission, artificial intelligence functionality within the actual camera, and improved resolution.[6] However, IP Cameras are more expensive than analog CCTV devices and by using the Internet, the video transmission is more easily accessible to hackers.[1] Axis began using Linux to operate their cameras in 1999 and released an API (Application Program Interface) called Vapix, allowing third parties to create recording software.[1] In 2005, Intellio released the first IP Camera that could detect movement and theft.[1]
Wide Area Surveillance
As technology has become more advanced and video cameras are able to record footage in greater detail and with more precision, video cameras mounted on fixed-wing aircraft are becoming more common, otherwise known as wide area surveillance. Retired Air Force Officer McNutt who helped design a system for the skies over a battleground city in Iraq, estimates that his 192-megapixel camera could record 50 crimes throughout the duration of a six-hour flight. [7]Aerial surveillance has been tested in Dayton, Philadelphia, Compton, and Baltimore for traffic impact studies and for security at large events. In 2007, McNutt founded an Ohio-based company called Persistent Surveillance Systems (PSS) to develop aerial surveillance in order to monitor large areas of land at once.[8] PSS utilizes two cameras, the HawkEye II for airborne wide area surveillance and the Vision RL for fixed wide area surveillance.[8] McNutt and PSS are negotiating with city and state law enforcement regarding the implementation of their wide area surveillance technology.
Personal Webcams as Surveillance Devices
Webcams either built into computers or that connect to computers via USB can be converted into do-it-yourself video surveillance systems. Softwares that allow for surveillance capabilities have been developed, like iSpy Connect and SightHound.[9] Once the software is installed, users are prompted to define a perimeter around an area in which the camera is programmed to detect movement. Depending on the software, users can either set up text-message or email notifications about detected movement.[9]
Video Surveillance and Facial Recognition
Facial recognition technology has been in development since the 1960s, though details about its progress have been kept quiet until recently. Earlier models required human input and were less automated. Biometric facial recognition involves three steps: detecting a face, recording detected faces, and then matching those faces with faces stored in a database. The software uses about 80 facial “landmarks” or “nodal points” to distinguish between faces, like nose width, eye-socket depth, and cheekbone shape.[10] Cameras are now capable of 3D modeling, rather than 2D modeling that was used in the past that required faces to be turned at least 35 degrees toward the camera.[10]
These systems have been used for tracking people entering and leaving a location, confirming identity for access control, and locating individuals who may pose a threat to public safety. In 2014, the FBI launched the Next Generation Identification system.[11] Beginning as a pilot program in 2009, the system was designed by defense contractor Lockheed Martin (LMT) and built by MorphoTrust, a company that specializes in biometric scanning.[11] Research indicates that 1 in 2 adult Americans have their picture in a facial recognition database and 16 states allow the FBI to access their DMV photo databases.[12]
Ethical Issues
Monitoring without explicit consent
Government monitoring, Ypsilanti
By law it is illegal to videotape anyone when there is a "reasonable expectation of privacy." This includes but is not limited to private restrooms, bedrooms, changing rooms, etc.. People in the outside world are likely to know that they could be being monitored by any number of surveillance devices, but as soon as they step into a private residence or an area where recording may be considered unethical issues can arise in terms of when it is OK to monitor without one's consent. [13]
That said, it is always legal to monitor trespassers without consent, as they waive any right to privacy in the act of trespassing. [13]
Hacking into private cameras to remotely control them
Webcams
Google Glass
Google's "Glass" product is a pair of eyeglasses with onboard computing power and digital sensors. One of the product's preeminent features is the ability to use an included camera to quickly and discreetly record photos and videos from this sensor. Thus, the concern over the product's usage stems from the same concerns that gave rise to the debate over explicit consent to be monitored and recorded.
Google Glass is a particularly salient issue in this debate because of the settings in which Glass can be operated. While modern video surveillance systems are, for the most part, either limited to public spaces or in private areas belong to the proprietor, Google Glass encompasses both of these types of space and more.
Implications of Facial Recognition
FBI’s NGI System The FBI's Next Generation Identification (NGI) System provides the criminal justice community with the world's largest electronic repository of criminal history and biometric information. Its capabilities range from advanced fingerprint identification technology to automatic notifications of activity for people in positions of trust (such as a teacher or daycare worker who are under criminal justice suspicion). One of these capabilities is facial recognition, which is run through the Interstate Photo System (IPS). The IPS provides a way to search through the photos of millions of criminals that the FBI has collected over decades past[14]. Many believe that this system, if not already, will soon move beyond photos for facial recognition.
People argue that unlike fingerprint or iris identification, facial recognition is designed to operate without the knowledge or consent of the person being identified. It's often done from a distance and it's nearly impossible to prevent oneself from being identified by cameras. These surveillance cameras are not just on street corners and shopping centers anymore- they're now integrated into everyday objects. Additionally, their capabilities are no longer limited to capturing video footage in case of emergencies. They can now perform functions such as ascertain the age and gender of passersby. Since facial recognition takes place in public spaces, it's not even necessary for the people being surveilled to grant it permission. While facial recognition algorithms themselves are neutral, the databases they're tied to are not. No matter what the database concerns, they are designed to sort the people they're surveilling into categorizable groups.
External Links
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Mesnik, Bob. "The History of Video Surveillance." Kintronics. Kintronics IP Security Solutions, Inc., 20 July 2016. Web. <https://kintronics.com/the-history-of-video-surveillance/>.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Delgado, Rick. "From Edison to Internet: A History of Video Surveillance." Business2Community. Business2Community.com, 14 Aug. 2013. Web. <http://www.business2community.com/tech-gadgets/from-edison-to-internet-a-history-of-video-surveillance-0578308#owROavBijRQCfkRk.97>.
- ↑ Barrett, David. "One Surveillance Camera for Every 11 People in Britain, Says CCTV Survey." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 10 July 2013. Web. <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/10172298/One-surveillance-camera-for-every-11-people-in-Britain-says-CCTV-survey.html>.
- ↑ Hughes, Mark. "CCTV in the Spotlight: One Crime Solved for Every 1,000 Cameras." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 24 Aug. 2009. Web. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/cctv-in-the-spotlight-one-crime-solved-for-every-1000-cameras-1776774.html>.
- ↑ "Study Shows Surveillance Cameras Reduce Crime, in Some Cases" Homeland Security News Wire. N.p., 26 Sept. 2011. Web. <http://www.homelandsecuritynewswire.com/study-shows-surveillance-cameras-reduce-crime-some-cases>.
- ↑ "An Incredibly Unboring History of IP Cameras." Home and Life Blog. Protect America, 12 Sept. 2016. Web. <http://www.protectamerica.com/home-security-blog/tech-tips/draft-an-incredibly-unboring-history-of-ip-cameras-draft_11713>.
- ↑ Timberg, Craig. "Get the Feeling You're Being Watched? These Eyes in the Sky Can Track Every Person, Vehicle in an Area for Hours." The Washington Post. WP Company, 05 Feb. 2014. Web. <https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/new-surveillance-technology-can-track-everyone-in-an-area-for-several-hours-at-a-time/2014/02/05/82f1556e-876f-11e3-a5bd-844629433ba3_story.html?utm_term=.7b4c8d9e5b6f>.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 McNutt, Ross. "Persistent Surveillance Systems." About Us. Persistent Surveillance Systems, n.d. Web. <https://www.pss-1.com/about-pss>.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Website Book Video/film Journal Database All 59 options Cite a website by entering its URL or by searching for it. Cite It Manual cite Help Hooray! Here's your new citation: Martin, Jim. "How to Use a Webcam as CCTV." PC Advisor. International Data Group, 16 Apr. 2014. Web. <http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/how-to/pc-peripheral/how-use-webcam-as-cctv-3510687/>.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bonsor, Kevin, and Ryan Johnson. "How Facial Recognition Systems Work." HowStuffWorks Tech. HowStuffWorks, 04 Sept. 2001. Web. <http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high-tech-gadgets/facial-recognition1.htm/>.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Pagliery, Jose. "FBI Launches a Powerful Facial Recognition System." CNNMoney -- Tech. Cable News Network, 16 Sept. 2014. Web. <http://money.cnn.com/2014/09/16/technology/security/fbi-facial-recognition/>.
- ↑ Maass, Dave. "Memo to the DOJ: Facial Recognition's Threat to Privacy Is Worse Than Anyone Thought." Deeplinks Blog. Electronic Frontier Foundation, 18 Oct. 2016. Web. <https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/10/memo-doj-facial-recognitions-threat-privacy-worse-anyone-thought/>.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Clauser, Grant. "Security Cameras, Ethics, and the Law." TheWirecutter.com. The Wirecutter, 23 Sept. 2016. Web. <http://thewirecutter.com/blog/security-cameras-ethics-and-the-law/>.
- ↑ "Next Generation Identification (NGI)." FBI Services. FBI.gov, 06 May 2016. Web. <https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/fingerprints-and-other-biometrics/ngi>.
