Genetically Modified Food

From SI410
Revision as of 01:35, 24 April 2017 by Mkovacov (Talk | contribs) (Ethical Implications)

(diff) ← Older revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
Jump to: navigation, search
EarthTalkProposition37California.jpg

Genetically modified foods are produced from organisms whose DNA has been changed through genetic engineering. [1] Genetic engineering techniques change the genetic makeup of an organism by introducing new genes from other organisms or repositioning or removing the organism’s existing genes. [2] Foods produced from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) benefit producers because they are more resistant to pests and weeds and yield a larger quantity of crops. Foods produced from GMOs benefit consumers because they can have longer storage capacity, better flavor, and increased nutritional value. Consumers typically have been wary about the health effects resulting from eating genetically modified foods, but current research holds that genetically modified foods are as safe to eat as unmodified foods. [3] Genetically modified food has experienced many ethical complications such as improper labeling, creation of food allergens, health risks, and environmental problems.

History

Around 10,000 years ago humans began to transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural lifestyle. [4] As the need for improved production grew, farmers began modifying their crops and livestock to make them more resistant to diseases and pests. For thousands of years farmers have been modifying their crops and livestock through selective breeding and hybridization to better serve human need. [5]

While selective breeding and hybridization are genetic modifications, these processes pre-date recombinant DNA processes and are not considered genetic engineering techniques. DNA was first isolated in 1869 by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher but the discovery of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of DNA, by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 is what significantly contributed to the development of the scientific techniques currently used to transfer DNA and genes within and across organisms today. [6]

In 1988, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of genetically modified organisms in food production. [7] In May of 1994, the U.S. FDA approved the first genetically modified food to be sold in stores - the Flavr Savr Tomato. [8] The U.S. company Calgene genetically modified the Flavr Savr Tomato to have an extended shelf life. A gene was inserted into the tomato that slowed the process of ripening and allowed the fruit to retain its natural color and flavor for longer. [9]

Now, nearly eighteen million farmers cross 28 nations - 20 developing countries and 8 developed countries- cultivate genetically modified crops on approximately 450 million acres of land. [10] Approximately three dozen nations, however, have banned the cultivation of genetically modified crops, but most of these nations permit the importation of genetically modified products. [11]

Development

The process of genetic modification involves identifying and isolating a desired trait, inserting that trait into an organism, and then cultivating that organism. [12] Genes can be transferred within and/or between bacteria, viruses, insects, animals, or even humans. [13] Genetic modification is possible because the genes of all organisms are made of DNA, meaning DNA from any two organisms can be combined. [14] These organisms are genetically modified and tested in laboratories. Modifications include inserting new genes, removing existing genes, or reorganizing existing genes within the organism in order to produce some desired characteristic. If the modified organism produces the desired characteristic in the laboratory, the producer of the organism must apply to test the product in the field and achieve success before the product can be approved for food production or commercialization.

Foods

GMOs are widely used in food production. Genetically modified organisms are commonly used in crops, processed foods, meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. Nearly 90 percent of all corn, soy, cotton, canola, and sugar beets grown in the United States are genetically modified [15] and more than 60 percent of all processed foods in the United States contain one or more of these genetically modified ingredients. [16]

For example, genetically modified corn is used to make high-fructose corn syrup and corn starch, a base ingredient in many processed foods. It can also be processed into everyday food items such as grits, pancakes, muffins, doughnuts, baby foods, cereals, taco shells, and tortillas. [17] Genetically modified soy is used to produce the soy lecithin found in many processed foods and soybean oil, one of the most commonly consumed vegetable oils. Also, genetically modified cotton is turned into oil that can be used for frying and is found in packaged foods like potato chips. [18]

Other foods that typically contain genetically modified ingredients unless labeled otherwise include ketchup, soda, yogurt, peanut butter, chocolate, canned soups, and many more. Animal products such as milk, cheese, meat, farmed fish, and eggs can also contain genetically modified ingredients [19] since genetically modified corn, soy, and cotton are commonly used in animal feed. [20]

Benefits

Genetically modified foods are beneficial for producers, consumers, and the environment. For producers, genetic modification is a time and cost efficient method for producing a larger quantity of higher quality crops. [21] The cost of production of genetically modified foods is less than the cost of production of unmodified foods because the need for chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers and mechanical inputs is reduced. [22] It is possible that the increased food production and decreased cost of production of genetically modified foods can help reduce hunger, especially in developing countries. Along with an increased supply of food, foods can be genetically modified to have increased nutritional value and shelf life, and have enhanced flavor and color, which benefit consumers. [23]

Also, in 2014, traditional agricultural practices accounted for nine percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. The production of genetically modified crops has been shown to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which can reduce the greenhouse effect and delay global warming. [24]

Regulation

The three main agencies involved in regulating genetically modified foods are the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). [25] The primary responsibility of the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service is to monitor the planting, importing, or transporting of genetically modified plants in accordance with the Plant Protection Act. This Act has the authority to prohibit the movement, entry, or exit of any plant within the United States, and under the Act, an item has to receive approval from the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service before being brought into the market. [26] The Food and Drug Administration on the other hand is responsible for regulating the safety of all human and animal food products in the US--excluding meat poultry, and eggs--as well as drugs and biological products. The Food and Drug Administration follows the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). This Act grants the Food and Drug Administration the authority to regulate food that "contains any poisonous or deleterious substance" that may be dangerous to health. The Act also prohibits the sale of adulterated or misbranded food. For animals, the Act usually labels "new animal drugs" as unsafe unless the Food and Drug Administration has approved a New Animal Drug Application to emphasize the particular use for the drug. [27] The Environmental Protection Agency regulates the manufacture, sale, and use of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Under this Act, any pesticide that causes "unreasonable adverse effects on the environment" cannot be used. In order for any pesticide to be distributed commercially, it must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency. [28]

Ethical Implications

Improper Labeling & Allergens

Consumers tend to be wary about eating genetically modified foods and perceive them to be unhealthy and unsafe since they are unnaturally occurring. The U.S. FDA regulates the production, field testing, and commercialization of genetically modified foods, but up until July of 2016 did not require them to be labeled because they claimed there was no need to unless there is a material difference between the genetically modified food and the original, natural food. [29] A major concern with genetic modification is the creation or enhancement of food allergens, and since products containing genetically modified ingredients were not required to be labeled before 2016, there was a risk for consumers with allergies. [30]

Long-term Health Effects

Current research holds that foods with genetically modified organisms do not pose a greater health risk to humans than non-genetically modified foods. However, since GMOs are a relatively new invention, not much is known about the long-term effects of producing and consuming them. Long-term effects can take years or even decades to appear. Genetically modified foods on the market today are considered safe to eat by food regulators. However, it is hard to determine whether these genetically modified foods with have unintended health risks in the future, since they were developed less than 100 years ago. [31]

Environmental Problems

The ecosystem is rich with diverse plants and animals, each playing an important part in the development and sustainability of other plants and animals. Growing genetically modified food poses a problem for the environment because when genetically modified organisms escape into the wild, they permanently disrupt ecosystems that have evolved over billions of years. Genetically modified organisms could create and spread viruses to other organisms that may have no natural defense against them, which may lead to the devastation of some plants and animals. [32] Genetically modified foods have the potential to dominate the ecosystem, which poses a threat to its bio diversity. If these crops start spreading out of control, it will be very hard to stop their damaging effects. Genetically modified food is still new enough that there is a lot that is not known yet about this type of crop production in the environment. [33]

Food Web

Destroying a food web is a huge risk for genetically modified foods. Pesticides to protect the crop from insects could harm other animals in the environment. An animal that consumes this genetically modified crop may die as the plant has been designed to produce a pesticide. [34]

Cross-Pollination

Cross-pollination is the ability of genes from the genetically modified food to spread to other crops and plants weeds that are impossible to maintain. [35]

Feeding Populations

Due to weather abnormalities, variance in labor availability and food supply, GMOs have allowed us to have a plentiful supply of food throughout the year. GMOs have created better resistant to weeds, pest and other diseases for staples such as corn. If a food is harder to grow without the help of GMOs, this would make it scarce if it is in high demand and consequently drive prices up, inflating the worth of the good. Additionally, this food will have a longer shelf life, which helps prevent having to re-buy food due to spoilage [36]. This consequently prevents against wasting food because the resources making new food won't have to go to feed those who's food spoiled, thus helping eliminate hunger.

References

  1. Schneider, Keith, and Renee Goodrich Schneider. "Genetically Modified Food." University of Florida IFAS Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32482742/FS08400.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487568320&Signature=t2LJLOerU8hDa5oj0wA96kQCmdM%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFSHN02-2_Genetically_Modified_Food_1.pdf>.
  2. Schneider, Keith, and Renee Goodrich Schneider. "Genetically Modified Food." University of Florida IFAS Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32482742/FS08400.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487568320&Signature=t2LJLOerU8hDa5oj0wA96kQCmdM%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFSHN02-2_Genetically_Modified_Food_1.pdf>.
  3. Nicolia, Alessandro, Alberto Manzo, Fabio Veronesi, and Daniele Rosellini. "An Overview of the Last 10 Years of Genetically Engineered Crop Safety Research." Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 34.1 (2013): 77-88. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. Informa Healthcare US, 13 Sept. 2013. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.agrobio.org/bfiles/fckimg/Nicolia%202013.pdf>.
  4. Chatterjee, Rhitu. "Where Did Agriculture Begin? Oh Boy, It's Complicated." NPR. NPR, 15 July 2016. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/07/15/485722228/where-did-agriculture-begin-oh-boy-its-complicated>.
  5. Chassy, Bruce M. "The History and Future of GMOs in Food and Agriculture." Cereal Foods World (2007): n. pag. Ask-force. 2007. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.ask-force.org/web/History/Chassy-History-Future-2007.pdf>.
  6. "The Francis Crick Papers: The Discovery of the Double Helix, 1951-1953." U.S. National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health, n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/Views/Exhibit/narrative/doublehelix.html>.
  7. "Genetically Modified Food." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2017. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food>.
  8. "Genetically Modified Food." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2017. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food>.
  9. James, Clive, and Anatole Krattiger. "The First Decade of Crop Biotechnology." Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, 1986 to 1995 1 (1996): 27. ISAAA. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf>.
  10. "Where Are GMOs Grown and Banned? #GMOFAQ." GMO FAQ. Science Literacy Project, 2016. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org/FAQ/where-are-gmos-grown-and-banned/>.
  11. "Where Are GMOs Grown and Banned? #GMOFAQ." GMO FAQ. Science Literacy Project, 2016. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org/FAQ/where-are-gmos-grown-and-banned/>.
  12. Powell, Chelsea. "How to Make a GMO." Science in the News. Harvard University, 10 Aug. 2015. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/how-to-make-a-gmo/>.
  13. "The GE Process." Institute for Responsible Technology. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://responsibletechnology.org/gmo-education/the-ge-process/>.
  14. Jones, LeightonAuthor InformationView Profile. BMJ : British Medical Journal; London318.7183 (Feb 27, 1999): 581. <http://search.proquest.com/docview/1777604545?pq-origsite=gscholar>
  15. http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/gmo-quick-facts-what-why-where
  16. Schneider, Keith, and Renee Goodrich Schneider. "Genetically Modified Food." University of Florida IFAS Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32482742/FS08400.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487568320&Signature=t2LJLOerU8hDa5oj0wA96kQCmdM%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFSHN02-2_Genetically_Modified_Food_1.pdf>.
  17. "Genetically Modified Food." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2017. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food>.
  18. Johnson, David, and Siobhan O'Connor. "Genetically Modified Foods: What Is Grown and Eaten in the U.S." Time. Time, 30 Apr. 2015. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://time.com/3840073/gmo-food-charts/>.
  19. "GMO QUICK FACTS: WHAT, WHY, WHERE." Whole Foods Market. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/gmo-quick-facts-what-why-where>.
  20. Johnson, David, and Siobhan O'Connor. "Genetically Modified Foods: What Is Grown and Eaten in the U.S." Time. Time, 30 Apr. 2015. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://time.com/3840073/gmo-food-charts/>.
  21. "Genetically Modified Foods." Genetic Science Learning Center. University of Utah Genetic Science Learning Center, n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/science/gmfoods/>.
  22. Schneider, Keith, and Renee Goodrich Schneider. "Genetically Modified Food." University of Florida IFAS Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32482742/FS08400.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487568320&Signature=t2LJLOerU8hDa5oj0wA96kQCmdM%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFSHN02-2_Genetically_Modified_Food_1.pdf>.
  23. "Benefits of GM Food:." GMO - Benefits. UC Santa Cruz, 2005. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <https://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cmpe080e/Spring05/projects/gmo/benefits.htm>.
  24. Brookes, Graham, and Peter Barfoot. "Global Impact of Biotech Crops: Socio-Economic and Environmental Effects in the First Ten Years of Commercial Use." Graham Brookes and Peter Barfoot. AgBioForum, 11 Jan. 2007. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://www.agbioforum.org/v9n3/v9n3a02-brookes.htm>.
  25. "Restictions on Genetically Modified Organisms." Web. 12 April. 2017. <https://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php>.
  26. "Title IV-Plant Protection Act." Web. 12 April. 2017. <https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads/PPAText.pdf>.
  27. "Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act." Web. 12 April. 2017. <https://www.fda.gov/regulatoryinformation/lawsenforcedbyfda/federalfooddrugandcosmeticactfdcact/default.htm>.
  28. "Summary of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act." Web. 12 April 2017. <https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-federal-insecticide-fungicide-and-rodenticide-act>.
  29. "Where Are GMOs Grown and Banned? #GMOFAQ." GMO FAQ. Science Literacy Project, 2016. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. <http://gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org/FAQ/where-are-gmos-grown-and-banned/>.
  30. Marushkina, Olena. "Genetically modified food." " Economics for Ecology" ISCS'2009 (2009): 87. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31171881/ISCS_Materials_2009.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487567914&Signature=UIX6jRrrRtfU9ufrFdxVQbOPGsw%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DACTORSATTITUDES_AND_ECONOMIC_BEHAVIOR_CO.pdf#page=86>
  31. Murnaghan, Ian. "The Long-term Effects of GM Foods." The Long-term Effects of GM Foods. N.p., 21 Feb. 2017. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. <http://www.geneticallymodifiedfoods.co.uk/longterm-effects-gm-foods.html>.
  32. Marushkina, Olena. "Genetically modified food." " Economics for Ecology" ISCS'2009 (2009): 87. <http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31171881/ISCS_Materials_2009.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1487567914&Signature=UIX6jRrrRtfU9ufrFdxVQbOPGsw%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DACTORSATTITUDES_AND_ECONOMIC_BEHAVIOR_CO.pdf#page=86>
  33. Murnaghan, Ian. "Ethical Concerns and GM Foods" Web. 20 April. 2017. http://www.geneticallymodifiedfoods.co.uk/ethical-concerns-gm-foods.html
  34. Murnaghan, Ian. "Ethical Concerns and GM Foods" Web. 20 April. 2017. http://www.geneticallymodifiedfoods.co.uk/ethical-concerns-gm-foods.html
  35. Murnaghan, Ian. "Ethical Concerns and GM Foods" Web. 20 April. 2017. http://www.geneticallymodifiedfoods.co.uk/ethical-concerns-gm-foods.html
  36. https://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cmpe080e/Spring05/projects/gmo/benefits.htm