Difference between revisions of "Gambling in Video Games"

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[[File:Csgo skin.jpeg|thumbnail|A skin for a weapon in CS:GO from win.gg]]
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[[File:rifle skin.png|thumbnail|A skin for a weapon in CS:GO from win.gg© <ref>How to trade and sell CSGO skins for real money outside of Steam. (2022). WIN.gg. https://win.gg/news/how-to-trade-and-sell-csgo-skins-for-real-money-outside-of-steam/  ‌</ref>]]
 
With the rise of using unlockable content as sources of income for the modern video game market, many modern video games have adopted a monetary system where players can acquire cosmetic game content in the form of texture redesigns for in-game items typically called “skins."  
 
With the rise of using unlockable content as sources of income for the modern video game market, many modern video games have adopted a monetary system where players can acquire cosmetic game content in the form of texture redesigns for in-game items typically called “skins."  
<ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563222000413?casa_token=F5C9nqsULswAAAAA:3gSkXrF3Wd4qjqV-5t-b9GEX9hFWL2lGGvKVxiHFuoDtczGM53ycXcWR948c9hFk6fWYmi0zxA#bib31 </ref>
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<ref> Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219</ref>
Often through some form of loot box with variable odds for random items, players can acquire different skins to customize how various items in their chosen game appear. <ref> https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/add.14973?casa_token=Ih0mMbUMTGMAAAAA%3AckR5WHGMJ2DWxDY_HaMPhVEBE0iJHVJ_0vcpFIOzgX4GYXpQi5fJsyHwIAihmIWAon_Gn6IXOQq1s8aO </ref>
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Often through some form of loot box with variable odds for random items, players can acquire different skins to customize how various items in their chosen game appear. <ref name="zendle"> Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973 </ref>
Loot boxes are typically purchased with real money on their own or by the buying of keys to open them. <ref> https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> However, certain games also allow the player to unlock forms of loot boxes with experience points which can be acquired through the continual playing of the game. <ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563222000413?casa_token=F5C9nqsULswAAAAA:3gSkXrF3Wd4qjqV-5t-b9GEX9hFWL2lGGvKVxiHFuoDtczGM53ycXcWR948c9hFk6fWYmi0zxA#bib31 </ref>
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Loot boxes are typically purchased with real money on their own or by the buying of keys to open them. <ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> However, certain games also allow the player to unlock forms of loot boxes with experience points which can be acquired through the continual playing of the game. <ref name="gibson"> Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219 </ref>
Some games also allow users to unlock skin content through using real-life money directly or purchasing game-specific currency that can be used in a similar fashion. These types of transactions are typically referred to as in-game micro-transactions. <ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563222000413?casa_token=F5C9nqsULswAAAAA:3gSkXrF3Wd4qjqV-5t-b9GEX9hFWL2lGGvKVxiHFuoDtczGM53ycXcWR948c9hFk6fWYmi0zxA#bib31 </ref>
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Some games also allow users to unlock skin content through using real-life money directly or purchasing game-specific currency that can be used in a similar fashion. These types of transactions are typically referred to as in-game micro-transactions. <ref name="gibson"> Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219 </ref>
  
After acquiring these skins, players can then choose to use these skins instead of the default textures that the game presents to them. How skins can change the appearance of the game can vary from changes in clothing to avatars and even weapon camouflages in first-person shooter games. These skins can be purely cosmetic and provide no in-game utility to the player or allow the player to more easily advance in the game. <ref> https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> However, players typically aim to acquire skins of a higher rarity because of their low drop rates. <ref> https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref>
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After acquiring these skins, players can then choose to use these skins instead of the default textures that the game presents to them. How skins can change the appearance of the game can vary from changes in clothing to avatars and even weapon camouflages in first-person shooter games. These skins can be purely cosmetic and provide no in-game utility to the player or allow the player to more easily advance in the game. <ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> However, players typically aim to acquire skins of a higher rarity because of their low drop rates.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> The acquisition of these skins through loot boxes has led to debates about them being a gateway to more traditional forms of gambling. <ref name="zendle"> Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973 </ref> Similar to other casino games like slots and roulette, the player pays to get a random chance of potentially winning and profiting from their down payment or losing it all. Ethical implications regarding underage gambling and gambling addiction have also been growing concerns with the fewer amounts of gambling regulations in the gaming industry. <ref name="gibson"> Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219 </ref>
The acquisition of these skins through loot boxes has led to debates about them being a gateway to more traditional forms of gambling. <ref> https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/add.14973?casa_token=Ih0mMbUMTGMAAAAA%3AckR5WHGMJ2DWxDY_HaMPhVEBE0iJHVJ_0vcpFIOzgX4GYXpQi5fJsyHwIAihmIWAon_Gn6IXOQq1s8aO#add14973-bib-0001 </ref> Similar to other casino games like slots and roulette, the player pays to get a random chance of potentially winning and profiting from their down payment or losing it all. Ethical implications regarding underage gambling and gambling addiction have also been growing concerns with the fewer amounts of gambling regulations in the gaming industry. <ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563222000413?casa_token=F5C9nqsULswAAAAA:3gSkXrF3Wd4qjqV-5t-b9GEX9hFWL2lGGvKVxiHFuoDtczGM53ycXcWR948c9hFk6fWYmi0zxA#bib31 </ref>
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=== Virtual Currency and Marketplaces ===
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=== Virtual currency and marketplaces ===
Along with the rise of skins within game systems, game-centered markets have also been formed to further monetize how players can interact with skins. One of these marketplaces has been the Steam community market. In this marketplace, players can create listings for their cosmetic skins and also buy skins from other players. These transactions create value for each individual skin, often based on their popularity and variety. The values of these skins can range from pennies to thousands of dollars. <ref> https://steamcommunity.com/market/search?appid=730#p1_price_desc </ref> In this form, skins are a form of virtual currency that players collect and exchange with each other.
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Along with the rise of skins within game systems, game-centered markets have also been formed to further monetize how players can interact with skins. One of these marketplaces has been the Steam community market. In this marketplace, players can create listings for their cosmetic skins and also buy skins from other players. These transactions create value for each individual skin, often based on their popularity and variety. The values of these skins can range from pennies to thousands of dollars.<ref> Steam Community Market :: Showing results for: Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. (2021). Steamcommunity.com. https://steamcommunity.com/market/search?appid=730#p1_price_desc </ref> In this form, skins are a form of virtual currency that players collect and exchange with each other.
  
 
== Beginnings ==
 
== Beginnings ==
In 2012, video company Valve introduced skins to their popular titles of Team Fortress 2 and Counter-Strike Global Offensive. These skins were added in an attempt to increase player engagement, and along with the addition of their community marketplace, they were immensely sought after by a variety of players. <ref> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_gambling </ref> In Team Fortress 2, these skins took the form of cosmetic hats and clothing that the characters could wear, and in Counter-Strike Global Offensive, they were brightly colored weapon camouflages. Along with their unique designs that appealed to their player bases, Valve assigned specific rarity values to each skin added into the games. These skins could be acquired through loot boxes that the player received randomly through playing the game. However, the player would have to use real money to purchase the keys to unlock them.  
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[[File:Tf2-unusual-galactic-gateway.jpeg|thumbnail|A rare cosmetic hat for a playable character in Team Fortress 2 from Rock Paper Shotgun©<ref>Castello, J. (2019, August 3). Valve address market-crashing Team Fortress 2 hat glitch. Rock Paper Shotgun; Rock Paper Shotgun. https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/valve-address-market-crashing-team-fortress-2-hat-glitch</ref>]]
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In 2012, video company Valve introduced skins to their popular titles of Team Fortress 2 and Counter-Strike Global Offensive. These skins were added in an attempt to increase player engagement, and along with the addition of their community marketplace, they were immensely sought after by a variety of players.<ref> Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 15). Skin gambling. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_gambling </ref> In Team Fortress 2, these skins took the form of cosmetic hats and clothing that the characters could wear, and in Counter-Strike Global Offensive, they were brightly colored weapon camouflages. Along with their unique designs that appealed to their player bases, Valve assigned specific rarity values to each skin added into the games that determined the probability that a player would be able to unlock the item through a loot box.<ref> Wiki Targeted (Games. (2022). Skins. Counter-Strike Wiki. https://counterstrike.fandom.com/wiki/Skins#Skin_Quality: </ref> These loot boxes could be randomly received through playing the game. However, the player would have to use real money to purchase the keys to unlock them. After using a key with a crate, it would consume both items to unlock a random skin.
  
[[File:Tf2-unusual-galactic-gateway.jpeg|thumbnail|A rare cosmetic hat for a playable character in Team Fortress 2 from Rock Paper Shotgun]]
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As games have continued to develop from their early era, the use of loot boxes to acquire various in-game items including skins has become increasingly commonplace. A study conducted in 2020 on the presence of loot boxes in mobile games on both Android and Apple platforms as well as in desktop games on popular gaming platform Steam showed that 58% of top-grossing Android games, 59% of top-grossing Apple games, and 36% of the most popular games on Steam contained a form of a loot box.<ref name="zendle"> Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973 </ref>
  
== Loot Boxes ==
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== Loot boxes ==
Loot boxes are another form of virtual item that can be opened by players to redeem a random selection of in-game items, which often include skins and other virtual cosmetics. Varying from game to game, these boxes can be opened after retrieving them or by forms of digital keys that players can purchase separately.a <ref> Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 12). Loot box. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loot_box </ref> After unlocking each box, there is a small probability that the player will retrieve a well sought-after rare item. Much similar to more conventional gambling methods, there is a chance that a player may win big or lose out on their investment.
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Loot boxes are virtual item crates that can be obtained and opened by players to redeem a random in-game item. Many games offer these loot boxes as free-to-play rewards for playing the game. However, players can also often purchase these loot boxes with in-game currencies or external funds. With slight variation between different games, these boxes can typically be opened immediately after retrieving them or through forms of digital keys that players can purchase separately for real money.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> After unlocking each box, it will be consumed and the player will receive a random item from the game. Often each unique item that can be obtained has a different category of rarity, which largely determines its drop rate. The rarest items are generally the ones with the lowest probability of dropping.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> Much similar to more conventional gambling methods, there is a chance that a player may win big or lose out on their investment. Many popular titles in current video games include loot boxes as a form of obtaining different loot including ''Star Wars Battlefront 2'', ''Overwatch'', ''Injustice 2'', ''For Honor'', ''FIFA Ultimate Team'', and more.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> <ref name="Drummond"> Drummond, A., & Sauer, J. D. (2018). Video game loot boxes are psychologically akin to gambling. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(8), 530–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0360-1 </ref>
  
Many games offer these loot boxes as free-to-play rewards for playing the game. However, players can also often purchase these loot boxes with in-game currencies or external funds. On the other hand, if the game requires keys to open the loot boxes, they are typically purchased separately. <ref> Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 12). Loot box. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loot_box </ref> Opening these loot boxes has also become a form of entertainment as well, with content creators uploading videos of themselves opening large amounts of boxes. One of them is YouTuber Prodigy, who opened 12,000 loot boxes from ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive''. <ref> Prodigy. (2021). 12,000x CSGO CASES!? WORLD RECORD OPENING (CRAZY KNIVES) [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvbqhoCQEZ0 </ref>
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=== Controversy on gambling status ===
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There has been debate on whether loot boxes should be categorized under gambling, largely because of a loot box's aspect of certainty. Figures from the video game industry have argued that because a player is guaranteed an item from opening a loot box, it does not align itself with definitions of gambling.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref> However, with its potential for monetary exchange, an unknown future outcome, chance determining at least part of the outcome, avoidance preventing loss, winners gaining at the expense of losers, and the ability for many games to cash out rewards, others argue that loot boxes are forms of gambling equal to conventional methods.<ref name="Drummond"> Drummond, A., & Sauer, J. D. (2018). Video game loot boxes are psychologically akin to gambling. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(8), 530–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0360-1 </ref> This grey area on the status of gambling results in varied levels of gambling regulations on loot boxes. Some countries such as China and Japan view loot boxes as inherent forms of gambling and have imposed regulations whereas other countries still have not fully considered where loot boxes fall on the spectrum of gambling.<ref name="buying"> IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216 </ref>
  
== Esports Betting ==
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== Esports betting ==
Stemming from the popularity of competitive esports, esports betting became a popular form of digital gambling within video games in 2016. Changes in regulations over recent years have forced many websites to abandon skin gambling directly. <ref> Raven, J. (2016, October 4). CS:GO Lounge handled over $1 billion in bets this year. Dot Esports; Dot Esports. https://dotesports.com/counter-strike/news/csgo-lounge-billion-bets-3896 </ref> However, previously, on third-party websites like CS:GO Lounge, players could gamble their virtual skins on the outcomes between teams of professional esports games. <ref> Yin-Poole, W. (2016, August 17). CS:GO Lounge drops skin gambling following Valve crackdown. Eurogamer.net; Eurogamer.net. https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-08-17-cs-go-lounge-drops-skin-gambling-following-valve-crackdown </ref> This brought to light many scandals around esports betting, including the iBUYPOWER match-fixing scandal where players on the team iBUYPOWER purposely lost a match to receive large sums of personal earnings from betting against themselves. <ref> North American match fixing scandal. (2021). Liquipedia Counter-Strike Wiki. https://liquipedia.net/counterstrike/North_American_match_fixing_scandal </ref>
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Stemming from the growing popularity of the competitive esports industry, esports betting has become a popular form of digital gambling within video games since the rise of Twitch and streaming platforms in 2011.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> Established sports gambling platforms have created opportunities to wager on the results of esports games and its growth has opened the door for new platforms to enter the field of video game gambling as well.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> Online websites with little regulation allow players to trade in their skins on their websites to be used to place bets on the results of esports games.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> If an individual successfully places a bet on the winning team, then they receive a percentage of their betting value in return depending on the favorable odds of the game as predicted by the community. Placing a bet on the wrong team would mean that the individual would lose their bet entirely. These websites for esports betting are especially prevalent for games like ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive'', ''Dota 2'', and ''PUBG'' where the skins can be cashed out for real money.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> The revenue of skin betting was estimated to be $56 billion in 2016. However, steps made by game developers on regulating betting on third-party platforms have decreased annual revenues to $670 million. <ref>WHERE’S THE ACTION? Analyzing the intersection of the gambling and esports industries. (2016). https://www.thelines.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Esports-and-Gambling.pdf</ref>
  
== Third-party gambling websites ==
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=== Match-fixing scandals ===
Over the years, third-party gambling websites where players can gamble their in-game skins have also gained popularity among gamers. Players can deposit their skins and choose a variety of casino games to play in an attempt to gain winnings. Some of these games include roulette, coin flip, jackpot, and case opening. These websites gained massive popularity in 2015-2016, as an estimated $2.3 billion was spent on skin betting in 2015 and $5 billion was spent in 2016. <ref> Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 15). Skin gambling. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_gambling </ref> Controversy surrounding these third-party gambling websites also arose when streamer and former pro player Mohamed "m0E" Assad threatened his gambling website sponsor CS:GO Diamonds that he would expose their malicious fixing of gambling games for marketing and entertainment if he was not properly compensated for his sponsorship. In a separate case, YouTubers "TmarTn" and "ProSyndicate" were also exposed for marketing the gambling website of CSGO Lotto without being transparent of their ownership of the website. <ref> Leslie, C. (2016, July 26). The CS:GO gambling scandal: Everything you need to know. Dot Esports; Dot Esports. https://dotesports.com/counter-strike/news/csgo-gambling-scandal-explained-3545 </ref>
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The introduction of skin betting brought to light scandals around esports betting through match-fixing.<ref name="matchfix">Esports consumer perspectives on match-fixing: implications for gambling awareness and game integrity. (2019). International Gambling Studies. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14459795.2018.1558451?casa_token=a7UaqkCnMOwAAAAA%3AXvlN-REr9mw5mBdY7D4AGDwffHCo9XokEz5nWpAHL8H5-bMARrqKEJab3NBnT-DtLhpQCwhr5N2ljw</ref> Match-fixing is the purposeful losing of a game with intent for profit. There have been a few cases of professional esports teams being exposed for partaking in match-fixing. In 2014, a ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive'' team named iBUYPOWER was discovered to have wagered against themselves in a tournament match using an esport skin betting platform. Following the scandal, the players were banned from competing in future tournaments.<ref name="matchfix">Esports consumer perspectives on match-fixing: implications for gambling awareness and game integrity. (2019). International Gambling Studies. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14459795.2018.1558451?casa_token=a7UaqkCnMOwAAAAA%3AXvlN-REr9mw5mBdY7D4AGDwffHCo9XokEz5nWpAHL8H5-bMARrqKEJab3NBnT-DtLhpQCwhr5N2ljw</ref> In ''StarCraft 2'', a number of high-profile teams were exposed to have partaken in match-fixing, leading to the closing of its long instantiated ProLeague in 2016. <ref name="matchfix">Esports consumer perspectives on match-fixing: implications for gambling awareness and game integrity. (2019). International Gambling Studies. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14459795.2018.1558451?casa_token=a7UaqkCnMOwAAAAA%3AXvlN-REr9mw5mBdY7D4AGDwffHCo9XokEz5nWpAHL8H5-bMARrqKEJab3NBnT-DtLhpQCwhr5N2ljw</ref>
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== Third-party skin gambling websites ==
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Over the years, third-party gambling websites where players can gamble their in-game skins have also gained popularity among gamers. Players can deposit their skins and choose a variety of traditional casino games to gamble and play in an attempt to gain winnings. Some of these games include roulette, coin flip, jackpot, slots, and case opening. Played in a similar fashion to their original form, the main distinction between these online platforms and their typical rules is the use of virtual in-game skins as currency rather than direct forms of cash. <ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> Players can then cash out these skins directly or use other third-party websites to sell the skins for real-life money. In turn, this process makes third-party video game gambling sites very close in function to traditional gambling websites. These websites gained massive popularity in 2016 with an estimated $5 billion dollars being used to gamble with skins. <ref name="5bill">How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler</ref>
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=== CSGO Lotto controversy ===
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In the spring of 2016, CSGO Lotto became a popular gambling website for the game ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive''. In design, it was closely similar to many of the other gambling platforms that had developed in recent years. However, a large part of its success was its highlighted exposure to the public through online public figures playing the gambling site on YouTube. Following an investigation by YouTuber HonorTheCall, Trevor Martin and Tom Cassel, also referred to as their online alias of TmarTn and Syndicate, were discovered to have been owners of the website despite not revealing this information to the public<ref name="5bill">How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler</ref> The two YouTubers had previously made countless videos on the website where they would win thousands of dollars. Pretending as if they were typical individuals gambling on the site rather than the owners themselves, a controversy around these individuals, as well as skin gambling websites, arose because of the potential for these YouTuber's audiences to be influenced to also partake in the same gambling activities. <ref name="5bill">How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler</ref>
  
 
== Ethical Implications ==
 
== Ethical Implications ==
=== Underage Gamblings ===
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=== Underage video game gambling ===
As these games are marketed to younger generations, both in-game gambling methods like loot boxes as well as other third-party gambling websites bring out ethical concerns about underage gambling. As skins are not considered to be actual money being gambled, there are no government laws in place that prevent younger individuals from partaking in these gambling-like activities. <ref> Skin betting and video games. What are they and how does it work. (2019, May 2). Videogames.org.au. https://www.videogames.org.au/skin-betting/ </ref> Underage minors can freely partake in these gambling activities without a complete understanding of the system. Experts state that this is even more concerning as peer pressure to obtain rare skins may influence younger individuals even more into partaking in these activities. However, over the years, certain measures have been established to control the digital gambling of skins such as blocking certain sites and establishing age requirements. <ref> Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 15). Skin gambling. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_gambling </ref> However, the presence of loot box gambling still remains prevalent within major games.
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As games with these gambling aspects are heavily marketed to younger generations, both in-game gambling methods like loot boxes as well as other third-party gambling websites bring out ethical concerns about exposing minors to underage gambling, especially because of how unregulated the space of video game gambling is. Of mobile games on the Apple App store, 42% of games rated ages 4 and up and 60% of games rated ages 9 and up contained loot boxes. <ref name="zendle">Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973</ref> This means that a large percentage of minors are being exposed to activities that closely resemble gambling in the games that they are playing from a young age. Even if the loot boxes in many of these games do not interact with real-life monetary funds, the act of exchanging in-game items for a randomized chance for profit may disguise and normalize gambling for vulnerable, under-age individuals. A 2018 study on youth gambling discovered that 3% of their youth participants had placed gambling bets using in-game skins from games before. <ref>Macey, J., Abarbanel, B., & Hamari, J. (2020). What predicts esports betting? A study on consumption of video games, esports, gambling and demographic factors. New Media & Society, 23(6), 1481–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820908510</ref> This may be additionally concerning given the potential for the monetary value to be attached to these virtual in-game skins. Certain skins have been valued at thousands of dollars.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> Minors may not be aware of the value attached to these in-game items and unknowingly lose money for what they believe in purely an in-game cosmetic. These effects are furthered by the ease of access to third-party gambling websites for many popular game titles like ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive'', ''Dota 2'', and ''PUBG''. These websites are largely unregulated in terms of managing the age of their participants and effectively allow underage minors to access its gambling features of esports betting and other wager games.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> As soon as individuals sign up for the platform, there is no age verification and they can begin gambling their skins on the platform almost immediately. Websites typically only require a login through a player's Steam account, which does not take into account their age or any form of ID verification.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> Social media influencers who market themselves playing the game exemplify this effect of exposing underage minors to gambling. Many of these gambling websites offer sponsorships to online streamers for them to market and play on their websites to their viewers in order to increase engagement with their website.<ref name="ebet">View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471</ref> However, many of these viewers may be minors and follow their influencer's marketing to partake in gambling websites. In all, the blurred lines of what constitutes video game gambling, frequency and potential for minors to be able to access gambling features, and third-party gambling websites create ethical concerns for underage gambling.
 +
 
 +
=== Video game gambling addition ===
 +
Virtual cosmetics in video games are highly sought-after items in many popular video games that players hope to obtain in order to specialize their experience playing the game. However, many games make the process of obtaining these virtual in-game items, especially ones of higher rarity, especially difficult without adding external funds in one way or another. For many games such as ''Overwatch'', ''Apex Legends'', ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive'', ''Team Fortress 2'', and other loot box-centered games, this is exactly the case. Purely playing the game will only leave a player with extremely common, low-valued skins in typical cases. To counter this challenge, many players partake in video game gambling through the game in the form of loot boxes or through third-party websites that allow users to wager their skins for the potential of profiting if they win. However, engaging in these websites has shown to be highly addictive and lead to symptoms of compulsive gambling typically more associated with traditional gambling methods. This process can be a slippery slope, starting with hopes to acquire a particular skin and growing into an addiction to win more returns or recover from losses.<ref name="5bill">How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler</ref> In particular, a minor's family that is now in a class-action lawsuit against Valve, the major video game company that developed the popular titles of ''Team Fortress 2'' and ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive'', recalls the process of their son beginning his gambling addition behind their back through virtual third-party skin betting websites in ''Counter-Strike Global Offensive''. Starting with small transactions, he eventually began selling his own personal items and even stealing their credit card information to obtain more skins to wager on gambling sites.<ref name="5bill">How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler</ref> When these instances of gambling are made more mainstream through the normalization of loot box gambling in video games, video game gambling addiction becomes a growing ethical concern for some. Loot boxes are extremely prevalent in video games, with around 56% of mobile games and 35% of desktop games containing a form of a loot box. <ref name="zendle">Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973</ref> This frequency may open the doors of gambling to more susceptible individuals and leave them vulnerable to potential gambling addiction and its other negative effects.
 +
 
 +
=== Low win rates ===
 +
Many modern video games with cosmetic items introduce these virtual in-game items through loot boxes. The growing ethical concern around this method of skin distribution is the low win rates of these loot boxes in particular not allowing individuals to fairly access certain aspects of the game's contents. This effectively creates a divide where only wealthier players can obtain the rarest skins. It is generally unknown the exact probabilities of unlocking different rarities of items in different games. However, regulations first made by the People's Republic of China have begun to require games to disclose the exact probabilities of obtaining different rarities of items.<ref name="xiao">Xiao, L. Y., Henderson, L. L., Yang, Y., & Newall, P. W. S. (2021). Gaming the system: suboptimal compliance with loot box probability disclosure regulations in China. Behavioural Public Policy, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2021.23</ref> In certain video game examples released by these regulations, it was disclosed that for a game named ''Game 75'' the probability of obtaining a Super Super Rare reward was 0.5%.<ref name="xiao">Xiao, L. Y., Henderson, L. L., Yang, Y., & Newall, P. W. S. (2021). Gaming the system: suboptimal compliance with loot box probability disclosure regulations in China. Behavioural Public Policy, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2021.23</ref> This probability, which reflects similar probabilities of loot boxes in other popular game titles, indicates the chance of obtaining extremely rare items through loot boxes are very low. Statistically, a player would have to unlock 200 items to expect one extremely rare item with these odds, and nothing is guaranteed. Games typically price each loot box at a few dollars, resulting in loot box successes costing hundreds of dollars of investments. These investments are not feasible for many players, bringing into question the ethics of these extremely low win rates of loot boxes for players of mobile and desktop video games. On the contrary, many video game industry leaders discuss that loot boxes themselves are fair because for many games, the in-game items have no real-life value outside of the game and the player is guaranteed to retrieve an in-game item after unlocking one.<ref name="buying">IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216</ref> Taking an alternative view on the discussion of loot boxes, video game companies like Riot Games have already started branching away from loot boxes in their recent video game ''Valorant''. <ref name="brown">Brown, F. (2020, March 5). Valorant will have a battle pass and sell cosmetics, but it won’t have loot boxes. Pcgamer; PC Gamer. https://www.pcgamer.com/valorant-will-have-a-battle-pass-and-sell-cosmetics-but-it-wont-have-loot-boxes/</ref> Instead of encouraging players to unlock virtual in-game skins through random chance in loot boxes, ''Valorant'' has a business model focused on in-game store and battle pass microtransactions.<ref name="brown">Brown, F. (2020, March 5). Valorant will have a battle pass and sell cosmetics, but it won’t have loot boxes. Pcgamer; PC Gamer. https://www.pcgamer.com/valorant-will-have-a-battle-pass-and-sell-cosmetics-but-it-wont-have-loot-boxes/</ref> In this manner, players can purchase skins directly or through a battle pass that will guarantee that they will receive certain items if they play enough to earn the required amount of points to complete it.
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 
<references />
 
<references />

Latest revision as of 23:51, 11 February 2022

A skin for a weapon in CS:GO from win.gg© [1]

With the rise of using unlockable content as sources of income for the modern video game market, many modern video games have adopted a monetary system where players can acquire cosmetic game content in the form of texture redesigns for in-game items typically called “skins." [2] Often through some form of loot box with variable odds for random items, players can acquire different skins to customize how various items in their chosen game appear. [3] Loot boxes are typically purchased with real money on their own or by the buying of keys to open them. [4] However, certain games also allow the player to unlock forms of loot boxes with experience points which can be acquired through the continual playing of the game. [5] Some games also allow users to unlock skin content through using real-life money directly or purchasing game-specific currency that can be used in a similar fashion. These types of transactions are typically referred to as in-game micro-transactions. [5]

After acquiring these skins, players can then choose to use these skins instead of the default textures that the game presents to them. How skins can change the appearance of the game can vary from changes in clothing to avatars and even weapon camouflages in first-person shooter games. These skins can be purely cosmetic and provide no in-game utility to the player or allow the player to more easily advance in the game. [4] However, players typically aim to acquire skins of a higher rarity because of their low drop rates.[4] The acquisition of these skins through loot boxes has led to debates about them being a gateway to more traditional forms of gambling. [3] Similar to other casino games like slots and roulette, the player pays to get a random chance of potentially winning and profiting from their down payment or losing it all. Ethical implications regarding underage gambling and gambling addiction have also been growing concerns with the fewer amounts of gambling regulations in the gaming industry. [5]

Virtual currency and marketplaces

Along with the rise of skins within game systems, game-centered markets have also been formed to further monetize how players can interact with skins. One of these marketplaces has been the Steam community market. In this marketplace, players can create listings for their cosmetic skins and also buy skins from other players. These transactions create value for each individual skin, often based on their popularity and variety. The values of these skins can range from pennies to thousands of dollars.[6] In this form, skins are a form of virtual currency that players collect and exchange with each other.

Beginnings

A rare cosmetic hat for a playable character in Team Fortress 2 from Rock Paper Shotgun©[7]

In 2012, video company Valve introduced skins to their popular titles of Team Fortress 2 and Counter-Strike Global Offensive. These skins were added in an attempt to increase player engagement, and along with the addition of their community marketplace, they were immensely sought after by a variety of players.[8] In Team Fortress 2, these skins took the form of cosmetic hats and clothing that the characters could wear, and in Counter-Strike Global Offensive, they were brightly colored weapon camouflages. Along with their unique designs that appealed to their player bases, Valve assigned specific rarity values to each skin added into the games that determined the probability that a player would be able to unlock the item through a loot box.[9] These loot boxes could be randomly received through playing the game. However, the player would have to use real money to purchase the keys to unlock them. After using a key with a crate, it would consume both items to unlock a random skin.

As games have continued to develop from their early era, the use of loot boxes to acquire various in-game items including skins has become increasingly commonplace. A study conducted in 2020 on the presence of loot boxes in mobile games on both Android and Apple platforms as well as in desktop games on popular gaming platform Steam showed that 58% of top-grossing Android games, 59% of top-grossing Apple games, and 36% of the most popular games on Steam contained a form of a loot box.[3]

Loot boxes

Loot boxes are virtual item crates that can be obtained and opened by players to redeem a random in-game item. Many games offer these loot boxes as free-to-play rewards for playing the game. However, players can also often purchase these loot boxes with in-game currencies or external funds. With slight variation between different games, these boxes can typically be opened immediately after retrieving them or through forms of digital keys that players can purchase separately for real money.[4] After unlocking each box, it will be consumed and the player will receive a random item from the game. Often each unique item that can be obtained has a different category of rarity, which largely determines its drop rate. The rarest items are generally the ones with the lowest probability of dropping.[4] Much similar to more conventional gambling methods, there is a chance that a player may win big or lose out on their investment. Many popular titles in current video games include loot boxes as a form of obtaining different loot including Star Wars Battlefront 2, Overwatch, Injustice 2, For Honor, FIFA Ultimate Team, and more.[4] [10]

Controversy on gambling status

There has been debate on whether loot boxes should be categorized under gambling, largely because of a loot box's aspect of certainty. Figures from the video game industry have argued that because a player is guaranteed an item from opening a loot box, it does not align itself with definitions of gambling.[4] However, with its potential for monetary exchange, an unknown future outcome, chance determining at least part of the outcome, avoidance preventing loss, winners gaining at the expense of losers, and the ability for many games to cash out rewards, others argue that loot boxes are forms of gambling equal to conventional methods.[10] This grey area on the status of gambling results in varied levels of gambling regulations on loot boxes. Some countries such as China and Japan view loot boxes as inherent forms of gambling and have imposed regulations whereas other countries still have not fully considered where loot boxes fall on the spectrum of gambling.[4]

Esports betting

Stemming from the growing popularity of the competitive esports industry, esports betting has become a popular form of digital gambling within video games since the rise of Twitch and streaming platforms in 2011.[11] Established sports gambling platforms have created opportunities to wager on the results of esports games and its growth has opened the door for new platforms to enter the field of video game gambling as well.[11] Online websites with little regulation allow players to trade in their skins on their websites to be used to place bets on the results of esports games.[11] If an individual successfully places a bet on the winning team, then they receive a percentage of their betting value in return depending on the favorable odds of the game as predicted by the community. Placing a bet on the wrong team would mean that the individual would lose their bet entirely. These websites for esports betting are especially prevalent for games like Counter-Strike Global Offensive, Dota 2, and PUBG where the skins can be cashed out for real money.[11] The revenue of skin betting was estimated to be $56 billion in 2016. However, steps made by game developers on regulating betting on third-party platforms have decreased annual revenues to $670 million. [12]

Match-fixing scandals

The introduction of skin betting brought to light scandals around esports betting through match-fixing.[13] Match-fixing is the purposeful losing of a game with intent for profit. There have been a few cases of professional esports teams being exposed for partaking in match-fixing. In 2014, a Counter-Strike Global Offensive team named iBUYPOWER was discovered to have wagered against themselves in a tournament match using an esport skin betting platform. Following the scandal, the players were banned from competing in future tournaments.[13] In StarCraft 2, a number of high-profile teams were exposed to have partaken in match-fixing, leading to the closing of its long instantiated ProLeague in 2016. [13]

Third-party skin gambling websites

Over the years, third-party gambling websites where players can gamble their in-game skins have also gained popularity among gamers. Players can deposit their skins and choose a variety of traditional casino games to gamble and play in an attempt to gain winnings. Some of these games include roulette, coin flip, jackpot, slots, and case opening. Played in a similar fashion to their original form, the main distinction between these online platforms and their typical rules is the use of virtual in-game skins as currency rather than direct forms of cash. [11] Players can then cash out these skins directly or use other third-party websites to sell the skins for real-life money. In turn, this process makes third-party video game gambling sites very close in function to traditional gambling websites. These websites gained massive popularity in 2016 with an estimated $5 billion dollars being used to gamble with skins. [14]

CSGO Lotto controversy

In the spring of 2016, CSGO Lotto became a popular gambling website for the game Counter-Strike Global Offensive. In design, it was closely similar to many of the other gambling platforms that had developed in recent years. However, a large part of its success was its highlighted exposure to the public through online public figures playing the gambling site on YouTube. Following an investigation by YouTuber HonorTheCall, Trevor Martin and Tom Cassel, also referred to as their online alias of TmarTn and Syndicate, were discovered to have been owners of the website despite not revealing this information to the public[14] The two YouTubers had previously made countless videos on the website where they would win thousands of dollars. Pretending as if they were typical individuals gambling on the site rather than the owners themselves, a controversy around these individuals, as well as skin gambling websites, arose because of the potential for these YouTuber's audiences to be influenced to also partake in the same gambling activities. [14]

Ethical Implications

Underage video game gambling

As games with these gambling aspects are heavily marketed to younger generations, both in-game gambling methods like loot boxes as well as other third-party gambling websites bring out ethical concerns about exposing minors to underage gambling, especially because of how unregulated the space of video game gambling is. Of mobile games on the Apple App store, 42% of games rated ages 4 and up and 60% of games rated ages 9 and up contained loot boxes. [3] This means that a large percentage of minors are being exposed to activities that closely resemble gambling in the games that they are playing from a young age. Even if the loot boxes in many of these games do not interact with real-life monetary funds, the act of exchanging in-game items for a randomized chance for profit may disguise and normalize gambling for vulnerable, under-age individuals. A 2018 study on youth gambling discovered that 3% of their youth participants had placed gambling bets using in-game skins from games before. [15] This may be additionally concerning given the potential for the monetary value to be attached to these virtual in-game skins. Certain skins have been valued at thousands of dollars.[11] Minors may not be aware of the value attached to these in-game items and unknowingly lose money for what they believe in purely an in-game cosmetic. These effects are furthered by the ease of access to third-party gambling websites for many popular game titles like Counter-Strike Global Offensive, Dota 2, and PUBG. These websites are largely unregulated in terms of managing the age of their participants and effectively allow underage minors to access its gambling features of esports betting and other wager games.[11] As soon as individuals sign up for the platform, there is no age verification and they can begin gambling their skins on the platform almost immediately. Websites typically only require a login through a player's Steam account, which does not take into account their age or any form of ID verification.[11] Social media influencers who market themselves playing the game exemplify this effect of exposing underage minors to gambling. Many of these gambling websites offer sponsorships to online streamers for them to market and play on their websites to their viewers in order to increase engagement with their website.[11] However, many of these viewers may be minors and follow their influencer's marketing to partake in gambling websites. In all, the blurred lines of what constitutes video game gambling, frequency and potential for minors to be able to access gambling features, and third-party gambling websites create ethical concerns for underage gambling.

Video game gambling addition

Virtual cosmetics in video games are highly sought-after items in many popular video games that players hope to obtain in order to specialize their experience playing the game. However, many games make the process of obtaining these virtual in-game items, especially ones of higher rarity, especially difficult without adding external funds in one way or another. For many games such as Overwatch, Apex Legends, Counter-Strike Global Offensive, Team Fortress 2, and other loot box-centered games, this is exactly the case. Purely playing the game will only leave a player with extremely common, low-valued skins in typical cases. To counter this challenge, many players partake in video game gambling through the game in the form of loot boxes or through third-party websites that allow users to wager their skins for the potential of profiting if they win. However, engaging in these websites has shown to be highly addictive and lead to symptoms of compulsive gambling typically more associated with traditional gambling methods. This process can be a slippery slope, starting with hopes to acquire a particular skin and growing into an addiction to win more returns or recover from losses.[14] In particular, a minor's family that is now in a class-action lawsuit against Valve, the major video game company that developed the popular titles of Team Fortress 2 and Counter-Strike Global Offensive, recalls the process of their son beginning his gambling addition behind their back through virtual third-party skin betting websites in Counter-Strike Global Offensive. Starting with small transactions, he eventually began selling his own personal items and even stealing their credit card information to obtain more skins to wager on gambling sites.[14] When these instances of gambling are made more mainstream through the normalization of loot box gambling in video games, video game gambling addiction becomes a growing ethical concern for some. Loot boxes are extremely prevalent in video games, with around 56% of mobile games and 35% of desktop games containing a form of a loot box. [3] This frequency may open the doors of gambling to more susceptible individuals and leave them vulnerable to potential gambling addiction and its other negative effects.

Low win rates

Many modern video games with cosmetic items introduce these virtual in-game items through loot boxes. The growing ethical concern around this method of skin distribution is the low win rates of these loot boxes in particular not allowing individuals to fairly access certain aspects of the game's contents. This effectively creates a divide where only wealthier players can obtain the rarest skins. It is generally unknown the exact probabilities of unlocking different rarities of items in different games. However, regulations first made by the People's Republic of China have begun to require games to disclose the exact probabilities of obtaining different rarities of items.[16] In certain video game examples released by these regulations, it was disclosed that for a game named Game 75 the probability of obtaining a Super Super Rare reward was 0.5%.[16] This probability, which reflects similar probabilities of loot boxes in other popular game titles, indicates the chance of obtaining extremely rare items through loot boxes are very low. Statistically, a player would have to unlock 200 items to expect one extremely rare item with these odds, and nothing is guaranteed. Games typically price each loot box at a few dollars, resulting in loot box successes costing hundreds of dollars of investments. These investments are not feasible for many players, bringing into question the ethics of these extremely low win rates of loot boxes for players of mobile and desktop video games. On the contrary, many video game industry leaders discuss that loot boxes themselves are fair because for many games, the in-game items have no real-life value outside of the game and the player is guaranteed to retrieve an in-game item after unlocking one.[4] Taking an alternative view on the discussion of loot boxes, video game companies like Riot Games have already started branching away from loot boxes in their recent video game Valorant. [17] Instead of encouraging players to unlock virtual in-game skins through random chance in loot boxes, Valorant has a business model focused on in-game store and battle pass microtransactions.[17] In this manner, players can purchase skins directly or through a battle pass that will guarantee that they will receive certain items if they play enough to earn the required amount of points to complete it.

References

  1. How to trade and sell CSGO skins for real money outside of Steam. (2022). WIN.gg. https://win.gg/news/how-to-trade-and-sell-csgo-skins-for-real-money-outside-of-steam/
  2. Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Zendle, D., Meyer, R., Cairns, P., Waters, S., & Ballou, N. (2020). The prevalence of loot boxes in mobile and desktop games. Addiction, 115(9), 1768–1772. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14973
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 IS THE BUYING OF LOOT BOXES IN VIDEO GAMES A FORM OF GAMBLING OR GAMING? | Gaming Law Review. (2021). Gaming Law Review. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/glr2.2018.2216
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 Gibson, E., Griffiths, M. D., Calado, F., & Harris, A. (2022). The relationship between videogame micro-transactions and problem gaming and gambling: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 131, 107219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107219
  6. Steam Community Market :: Showing results for: Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. (2021). Steamcommunity.com. https://steamcommunity.com/market/search?appid=730#p1_price_desc
  7. Castello, J. (2019, August 3). Valve address market-crashing Team Fortress 2 hat glitch. Rock Paper Shotgun; Rock Paper Shotgun. https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/valve-address-market-crashing-team-fortress-2-hat-glitch
  8. Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, January 15). Skin gambling. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_gambling
  9. Wiki Targeted (Games. (2022). Skins. Counter-Strike Wiki. https://counterstrike.fandom.com/wiki/Skins#Skin_Quality:
  10. 10.0 10.1 Drummond, A., & Sauer, J. D. (2018). Video game loot boxes are psychologically akin to gambling. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(8), 530–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0360-1
  11. 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 View of Esports Betting and Skin Gambling: A Brief History. (2022). Camh.net. https://jgi.camh.net/jgi/index.php/jgi/article/view/4059/4471
  12. WHERE’S THE ACTION? Analyzing the intersection of the gambling and esports industries. (2016). https://www.thelines.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Esports-and-Gambling.pdf
  13. 13.0 13.1 13.2 Esports consumer perspectives on match-fixing: implications for gambling awareness and game integrity. (2019). International Gambling Studies. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14459795.2018.1558451?casa_token=a7UaqkCnMOwAAAAA%3AXvlN-REr9mw5mBdY7D4AGDwffHCo9XokEz5nWpAHL8H5-bMARrqKEJab3NBnT-DtLhpQCwhr5N2ljw
  14. 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 How Counter-Strike spawned a $5 billion gambling market you’ve never heard of. (2015). ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/18510975/how-counter-strike-turned-teenager-compulsive-gambler
  15. Macey, J., Abarbanel, B., & Hamari, J. (2020). What predicts esports betting? A study on consumption of video games, esports, gambling and demographic factors. New Media & Society, 23(6), 1481–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820908510
  16. 16.0 16.1 Xiao, L. Y., Henderson, L. L., Yang, Y., & Newall, P. W. S. (2021). Gaming the system: suboptimal compliance with loot box probability disclosure regulations in China. Behavioural Public Policy, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2021.23
  17. 17.0 17.1 Brown, F. (2020, March 5). Valorant will have a battle pass and sell cosmetics, but it won’t have loot boxes. Pcgamer; PC Gamer. https://www.pcgamer.com/valorant-will-have-a-battle-pass-and-sell-cosmetics-but-it-wont-have-loot-boxes/