Ethical Implications of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering refers to the manipulation of an organism's DNA through the introduction of foreign elements into its genetic code. This can be done by combining genes from different species or by introducing new genes depending on the situation. Genetic engineering has led to the creation of new plant and animal varieties and the improvement of existing ones. For example, scientists have developed genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests and diseases, which helped to increase food production and improve food security. Additionally, genetic engineering has been used in the medical field to develop new treatments for genetic disorders and diseases.

The earliest examples of genetic engineering go back to the Neolithic period when artificial selection was(link) used to breed plants and animals with the most desired traits. Gregor Mendel was another pioneer of genetic engineering, who discovered genetic inheritance. Since then discoveries and advancements in DNA sequencing, plasmid technology, and CRISPR Cas-9 all have spearheaded the development of new genetic technologies.

Genetic engineering regulation varies by country, while most of the world evaluates the application of each genetically modified organism (GMO) on a case-to-case basis. Additionally, several controversies exist surrounding the use and sale of GMOs, including labeling and accessibility. (4)

Genetic Engineering Techniques

Genetic engineering not only allows for the manipulation of an organism’s genetic information, but it also allows for the insertion, deletion, silencing, and exemplification of a variety of genetic traits.

Plasmid Technology

At this time, the most common genetic engineering technology makes use of the insertion of the genes of plasmids(LINK) derived from common and harmless strains of laboratory bacteria such as E. Coli. These plasmids are the main driver of the communication of genetic information between organisms (1). They are physically separated from the DNA of the bacteria and plasmids have the ability to reproduce without the help of the host bacteria. The characteristic that makes plasmids so viable within genetic engineering is the fact that when a foreign DNA fragment is inserted within the cyclical structure of the plasmid, it makes copies of the inserted gene. (2)

When these modified plasmids are inserted into a superior organism, scientists are able to use them in a way that amplifies the hosts' resistances, growth rates, ability to silence unwanted mutations, and others. This technology is very widespread, as scientists have created software that records the DNA sequences of plasmids that have a variety of functions. (3)

CRISPR Cas-9 Technology

CRISPR Cas-9 technology is an adaptation of a previously existing genome editing system used by a specific type of bacteria for immune defense. When this host cell woul be infected with a pathogen, the bacteria would create a pattern known as a CRISPR array. This array would allow the bacteria to remember the virus based on this pattern, by being able to assign the Cas-9 enzyme to break down the pathogen. This recognition allows the bacteria to much more efficiently fight off the pathogen or similar pathogens. (7)

New technology has adapted this defense system in order to edit DNA in foreign cells. In this instance, scientists modify the CRISPR with a portion of code that attaches itself and the Cas-9 enzyme to the target cells DNA. When this system is introduced, the Cas-9 protein cuts the DNA at a specified location. The scientists also code in one of two options. The first is to allow the host cell to repair the faulty DNA via its own cellular machinery. The second is to introduce a customized DNA sequence and replace it where the Cas-9 protein cut the DNA. This effectively grants the ability to either have the cell self-heal faulty DNA, or to introduce new DNA while simultaneously removing the old DNA.

This technology is different and much newer than plasmid technology for gene editing, so it is currently only used in clinical trials on microgoranisms and animals. Scientists predict that when perfected, this technology could provide an alternative solution to diseases such as cystic fibrosis, Fabry’s disease, sickle cell anemia, and many other genetic related diseases. (7)

Legislature and Regulation of Genetic Engineering

Regulation of genetic engineering includes laws and international agreements that aim to protect human health, environment, as well as ecosystems across the globe. These regulations vary by country and type of GMO, but they typically prohibit the use of genetic engineering for commercial gain. The legislature also typically ensures that GMOs are only used for the purpose of advancing scientific knowledge. Furthermore, they also require that any genetically modified organisms are thoroughly tested and evaluated before being released into the environment.

Regulation in the United States

There are three governing bodies that create and ammend legislation in the United States surrounding genetically modified organisms. Those agencies are the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In addition to creating laws and regulations surrounding GMOs, these three organizations also monitor the impact of GMOs on the environment.

The FDA regulates GMO foods, in order to assure that they meet the strict food safety standards that apply to all non-GMO foods. Regardless of how or where the food is created, the FDA is also responsible for enforcing the regulations on those who produce, process, store, move, and sell the food. Concerning GMOs, the EPA regulates the safety of the materials used to protect GMO food and plants from pests, insects and disease. They also regulate subtances that extend the shelf life of GMO foods. In this situation, the USDA is mainly responsible for making sure that the modifications an growth of new GMO products do not hinder or negatively affect other plants or food. (6)

Other Regulatory Processes Around the World

Ethical Implications of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering together fall in the category of using existing technologies to modify the genetic sequence of organisms. The most common form of this is GMO (Genetically Modified Organisms) plants, which would be used to produce more crop yield and fend off certain types of plant diseases. Although there are health concerns about consuming GMO plants, many eat them on a daily basis, and is essential to keep people fed due to their ability to produce high yields. The more controversial topic of genetic Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering is modifying human genetic sequence. Although the technology to do so has proven useful in the medical field to cure illness, the ability to modify the human genome is still frightening. Technologies could be used for harm to others and lead to dangerous ideas, such as eugenics. Biotechnology and genetic engineering are powerful tools and remaining ethical to use these powerful tools is the real concern.

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