Difference between revisions of "Designer Babies"
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| − | Once a science-fiction concept and now a reality, a designer baby is defined as a baby that has been genetically engineered in order to include or remove certain genes associated with a certain disease or phenotype. <ref>Ly, S. (2011, March 31). Ethics of Designer Babies | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/ethics-designer-babies</ref> This process can be completed in two different ways. The more common process involves pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which according to Johns Hopkins University, is reproductive technology that is made up of “a screening test that can be performed on embryos created via in vitro fertilization (IVF) to genetically analyze the embryos prior to transfer.” | + | Once a science-fiction concept and now a reality, a designer baby is defined as a baby that has been genetically engineered in order to include or remove certain genes associated with a certain disease or phenotype. <ref>Ly, S. (2011, March 31). Ethics of Designer Babies | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/ethics-designer-babies</ref> This process can be completed in two different ways. The more common process involves pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which according to Johns Hopkins University, is reproductive technology that is made up of “a screening test that can be performed on embryos created via in vitro fertilization (IVF) to genetically analyze the embryos prior to transfer.” <ref>Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGD) | The Johns Hopkins Fertility Center. (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/fertility-center/infertility-services/preimplantation-genetic-testing.html</ref> The second and less common method is genome editing which involves actually modifying the embryos’ DNA sequences. This was first done by Chinese researcher He Jiankui in 2018 on a pair of twins in order to protect them against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). <ref>Greely, H. T. (2019, October). CRISPR’d babies: human germline genome editing in the ‘He Jiankui affair’. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 6(1), 111-183. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. 10.1093/jlb/lsz010</ref> |
== How They Work == | == How They Work == | ||
=== Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis === | === Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis === | ||
| − | The first process, PGD, requires in vitro fertilization in order to acquire the embryos that will be used for the procedure. Once the eggs have been retrieved and fertilized, medical professionals perform a procedure known as assisted hatching. This is done in order to obtain cells which will be biopsied and analysed in order to scan for specific genetic traits, such as mutated cells. | + | The first process, PGD, requires in vitro fertilization in order to acquire the embryos that will be used for the procedure. Once the eggs have been retrieved and fertilized, medical professionals perform a procedure known as assisted hatching. This is done in order to obtain cells which will be biopsied and analysed in order to scan for specific genetic traits, such as mutated cells. <ref>Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGD) | The Johns Hopkins Fertility Center. (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/fertility-center/infertility-services/preimplantation-genetic-testing.html</ref> Then, only embryos with the desired traits, such as those lacking genetic diseases, are transferred to the uterus to initiate the process of pregnancy. <ref>What is PGD? (n.d.). Genetics & IVF Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.givf.com/geneticservices/whatispgd.shtml</ref> |
=== Genomic Editing === | === Genomic Editing === | ||
| − | As noted before, the second process, genomic editing, requires editing the embryos’ DNA sequences with cutting and deletion. This method been used by researchers since the 1970’s to edit the genomes of different organisms, such as yeast and bacteria, in order to learn more about genomic sequencing and how it affects humans. While the first genome editing technologies were created in the late 20th century, the most recent and rapidly developing genome editing tool used to edit humans is known as CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). | + | As noted before, the second process, genomic editing, requires editing the embryos’ DNA sequences with cutting and deletion. This method been used by researchers since the 1970’s to edit the genomes of different organisms, such as yeast and bacteria, in order to learn more about genomic sequencing and how it affects humans. <ref>How Does Genome Editing Work? (2017, August 3). National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/Genome-Editing/How-genome-editing-works</ref>While the first genome editing technologies were created in the late 20th century, the most recent and rapidly developing genome editing tool used to edit humans is known as CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). <ref>Hsu, P. D., Lander, E. S., & Zhang, F. (2014, June 05). Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 157(6), 1262-1278. 10.1016/j.cell.2014.05.010</ref> Invented in 2009 by Dr. Jennifer Doudna and Dr. Emmanuelle Charpentier, this tool is much more time and cost-efficient as well as more accurate than any previous method. It has been used to develop two different gene therapies: germline therapy and somatic therapy. Germline therapy alters the DNA in sperm and eggs, in other words, reproductive cells and consequently, can change reproductive cells in future generations. On the contrary, somatic therapies target non-reproductive cells, so these changes are not passed down from generation to generation. <ref>What is genome editing? (2019, August 15). National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/what-is-Genome-Editing</ref> |
== Uses == | == Uses == | ||
| − | There are several known uses for utilizing PGD and genome editing. It is primarily used to prevent genetic diseases by identifying abnormal or known disease-related chromosomes and then selecting against them. While all couples may consider the procedure, couples who tend to use it in order to achieve pregnancy and avoid a genetic disease include parents who carry an heritable disease or who have had difficulties getting pregnant in the past. For example, women over 38 years old and men with sperm abnormalities have a higher probability of producing embryos with chromosomal mutations. | + | There are several known uses for utilizing PGD and genome editing. It is primarily used to prevent genetic diseases by identifying abnormal or known disease-related chromosomes and then selecting against them. While all couples may consider the procedure, couples who tend to use it in order to achieve pregnancy and avoid a genetic disease include parents who carry an heritable disease or who have had difficulties getting pregnant in the past. For example, women over 38 years old and men with sperm abnormalities have a higher probability of producing embryos with chromosomal mutations.<ref>What is PGD? (n.d.). Genetics & IVF Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.givf.com/geneticservices/whatispgd.shtml</ref> |
| − | Another known use for the procedure is to select embryos of a specific sex. This is most commonly done by couples when an heritable disease is strongly associated with one sex over another, such as the X-linked disorder haemophilia. Some couples may also choose the sex of their child due to preference although this has become a subject of controversy for the greater medical community. | + | Another known use for the procedure is to select embryos of a specific sex. This is most commonly done by couples when an heritable disease is strongly associated with one sex over another, such as the X-linked disorder haemophilia. Some couples may also choose the sex of their child due to preference although this has become a subject of controversy for the greater medical community. <ref>How Is Gender Selection Performed Using PGD. (n.d.). New York Fertility Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.nyfertility.org/blog/how-is-gender-selection-performed-using-pgd</ref> |
== Ethical Considerations == | == Ethical Considerations == | ||
=== Lack of Embryo Permission === | === Lack of Embryo Permission === | ||
| − | One concern about genetically modified or selected babies is that the embryo is unable to give permission as to whether or not . On the other hand, there are bioethicists believe that prenatal autonomy should grant parents the right to decide the fate of their children, including their gender or selected traits. | + | One concern about genetically modified or selected babies is that the embryo is unable to give permission as to whether or not . On the other hand, there are bioethicists that believe that prenatal autonomy should grant parents the right to decide the fate of their children, including their gender or selected traits. |
=== Financial Discrimination === | === Financial Discrimination === | ||
Revision as of 18:27, 28 January 2022
Once a science-fiction concept and now a reality, a designer baby is defined as a baby that has been genetically engineered in order to include or remove certain genes associated with a certain disease or phenotype. [1] This process can be completed in two different ways. The more common process involves pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which according to Johns Hopkins University, is reproductive technology that is made up of “a screening test that can be performed on embryos created via in vitro fertilization (IVF) to genetically analyze the embryos prior to transfer.” [2] The second and less common method is genome editing which involves actually modifying the embryos’ DNA sequences. This was first done by Chinese researcher He Jiankui in 2018 on a pair of twins in order to protect them against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). [3]
Contents
How They Work
Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis
The first process, PGD, requires in vitro fertilization in order to acquire the embryos that will be used for the procedure. Once the eggs have been retrieved and fertilized, medical professionals perform a procedure known as assisted hatching. This is done in order to obtain cells which will be biopsied and analysed in order to scan for specific genetic traits, such as mutated cells. [4] Then, only embryos with the desired traits, such as those lacking genetic diseases, are transferred to the uterus to initiate the process of pregnancy. [5]
Genomic Editing
As noted before, the second process, genomic editing, requires editing the embryos’ DNA sequences with cutting and deletion. This method been used by researchers since the 1970’s to edit the genomes of different organisms, such as yeast and bacteria, in order to learn more about genomic sequencing and how it affects humans. [6]While the first genome editing technologies were created in the late 20th century, the most recent and rapidly developing genome editing tool used to edit humans is known as CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). [7] Invented in 2009 by Dr. Jennifer Doudna and Dr. Emmanuelle Charpentier, this tool is much more time and cost-efficient as well as more accurate than any previous method. It has been used to develop two different gene therapies: germline therapy and somatic therapy. Germline therapy alters the DNA in sperm and eggs, in other words, reproductive cells and consequently, can change reproductive cells in future generations. On the contrary, somatic therapies target non-reproductive cells, so these changes are not passed down from generation to generation. [8]
Uses
There are several known uses for utilizing PGD and genome editing. It is primarily used to prevent genetic diseases by identifying abnormal or known disease-related chromosomes and then selecting against them. While all couples may consider the procedure, couples who tend to use it in order to achieve pregnancy and avoid a genetic disease include parents who carry an heritable disease or who have had difficulties getting pregnant in the past. For example, women over 38 years old and men with sperm abnormalities have a higher probability of producing embryos with chromosomal mutations.[9] Another known use for the procedure is to select embryos of a specific sex. This is most commonly done by couples when an heritable disease is strongly associated with one sex over another, such as the X-linked disorder haemophilia. Some couples may also choose the sex of their child due to preference although this has become a subject of controversy for the greater medical community. [10]
Ethical Considerations
Lack of Embryo Permission
One concern about genetically modified or selected babies is that the embryo is unable to give permission as to whether or not . On the other hand, there are bioethicists that believe that prenatal autonomy should grant parents the right to decide the fate of their children, including their gender or selected traits.
Financial Discrimination
Another concern is that the process of PGD or genome editing is very expensive and as a result, it may increase the wealth gap if only a small percentage of the population can afford it. This could lead to greater health disparities if only the extremely wealthy are able to select against genetic disorders. It could also lead to different types of discrimination if only those who can afford to use these procedures can select the traditionally most desirable traits for their future children.
Aesthetic Use
While there are some who support PGD and genome editing for preventing genetic disorder, they do not su
Generational Impact
One final controversial aspect of these selective genetic procedures is that changes can be inherited by generations to come rather than just the immediate individual affected. Similar to the way in which the affected individuals cannot give permission to undergo the procedure given that they are simply embryos at the time, future generations also cannot give permission to be impacted by these changes since they have not even been conceived yet. For this reason, a multitude of countries and organizations do not support germline editing and have regulations in place against it. For example, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has not approved funding for this research.
References
- ↑ Ly, S. (2011, March 31). Ethics of Designer Babies | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/ethics-designer-babies
- ↑ Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGD) | The Johns Hopkins Fertility Center. (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/fertility-center/infertility-services/preimplantation-genetic-testing.html
- ↑ Greely, H. T. (2019, October). CRISPR’d babies: human germline genome editing in the ‘He Jiankui affair’. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 6(1), 111-183. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. 10.1093/jlb/lsz010
- ↑ Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGD) | The Johns Hopkins Fertility Center. (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/fertility-center/infertility-services/preimplantation-genetic-testing.html
- ↑ What is PGD? (n.d.). Genetics & IVF Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.givf.com/geneticservices/whatispgd.shtml
- ↑ How Does Genome Editing Work? (2017, August 3). National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/Genome-Editing/How-genome-editing-works
- ↑ Hsu, P. D., Lander, E. S., & Zhang, F. (2014, June 05). Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 157(6), 1262-1278. 10.1016/j.cell.2014.05.010
- ↑ What is genome editing? (2019, August 15). National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/what-is-Genome-Editing
- ↑ What is PGD? (n.d.). Genetics & IVF Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.givf.com/geneticservices/whatispgd.shtml
- ↑ How Is Gender Selection Performed Using PGD. (n.d.). New York Fertility Institute. Retrieved January 23, 2022, from https://www.nyfertility.org/blog/how-is-gender-selection-performed-using-pgd
