Difference between revisions of "Autonomous Vehicles"
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As company like Google have been able to make their autonomousis cars street legal, a variety of safety concerns have arisen over the presence of self-driving vehicles sharing the road with traditional human driven vehicles. Since 2009, Google's self-driving cars have been involved in a total of sixteen crashes, which have mostly consisted of fender benders. All sixteen crashes were faulted as human error, however, in a 2015 report, the New York Times wrote that the car's tendency to "drive by the book" lead to over maneuvering to prevent collisions, often confusing other human drivers on the road and resulting in the subsequent accidents. <ref> Richtel, Matt and Dougherty, Conor. ["Google’s Driverless Cars Run Into Problem: Cars With Drivers" http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/technology/personaltech/google-says-its-not-the-driverless-cars-fault-its-other-drivers.html?_r=0] The New York Times. 01 Septemeber 2015.</ref> | As company like Google have been able to make their autonomousis cars street legal, a variety of safety concerns have arisen over the presence of self-driving vehicles sharing the road with traditional human driven vehicles. Since 2009, Google's self-driving cars have been involved in a total of sixteen crashes, which have mostly consisted of fender benders. All sixteen crashes were faulted as human error, however, in a 2015 report, the New York Times wrote that the car's tendency to "drive by the book" lead to over maneuvering to prevent collisions, often confusing other human drivers on the road and resulting in the subsequent accidents. <ref> Richtel, Matt and Dougherty, Conor. ["Google’s Driverless Cars Run Into Problem: Cars With Drivers" http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/technology/personaltech/google-says-its-not-the-driverless-cars-fault-its-other-drivers.html?_r=0] The New York Times. 01 Septemeber 2015.</ref> | ||
− | In 2015, the Telsa Motors company enabled an autopilot feature through a software update to existing cars. While CEO Elon Musk claimed that the feature would result in radical improvements for vehicle safety, the company failed to prevent drivers from abusing the feature. While in autopilot mode, the company recommends that drivers keep both hands on the car steering wheel. <ref>http://www.theverge.com/2015/11/20/9770902/tesla-model-s-autopilot-disabled-hong-kong-regulations</ref> However, additional constraints had to be enforced after a slew of YouTube videos emerged of drivers using the autopilot feature without their hands on the steering wheel. <ref>http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9589724/tesla-autopilot-videos-youtube-safety-advice-ignored</ref> Currently, regulators have banned Telsa from activating the feature in Hong Kong, and other countries may soon follow suit. | + | In 2015, the Telsa Motors company enabled an autopilot feature through a software update to existing cars. While CEO Elon Musk claimed that the feature would result in radical improvements for vehicle safety, the company failed to prevent drivers from abusing the feature. While in autopilot mode, the company recommends that drivers keep both hands on the car steering wheel. <ref> Statt, Nick. ["Tesla forced to disable autopilot features for Hong Kong owners" http://www.theverge.com/2015/11/20/9770902/tesla-model-s-autopilot-disabled-hong-kong-regulations] The Verge. 20 November 2015.</ref> However, additional constraints had to be enforced after a slew of YouTube videos emerged of drivers using the autopilot feature without their hands on the steering wheel. <ref>McCormick, Rich. ["Tesla owners are ignoring autopilot safety advice and putting the results on YouTube" http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9589724/tesla-autopilot-videos-youtube-safety-advice-ignored] The Verge. 21 Octber 2015.</ref> Currently, regulators have banned Telsa from activating the feature in Hong Kong, and other countries may soon follow suit. |
==Ethical Concerns== | ==Ethical Concerns== |
Revision as of 19:46, 23 April 2017
Autonomous cars (self-driving cars, robot cars, automated cars) are cars that have the ability to sense their surroundings and subsequently use data to make decisions. Autonomous cars have come a long way in the last twenty years, from creating simpler park assist technologies, to equipping vehicles with technology that allows them to monitor surroundings, change lanes, and make emergency stops. Self-driving cars have been featured at Expos, Worlds Fairs, and more recently have made appearances at the North American International Auto Show and the Consumer Electronics Show. Overall these cars are safer than traditional driving because they can sense obstacles and react to them quicker than humans.[1] There are however, some ethical considerations that pertain to the increased safety measures that these cars may provide. Because autonomous vehicles are designed by humans, there is debate over who should determine the vehicles' tendencies.
Contents
History
Beginnings
Autonomous cars have origins in the 1920s when the Houdina Radio Control Company installed radio control equipment in a 1926 Chandler.[2] From 1950 to 1980 numerous companies and universities attempted to control cars by laying guide wires in the roadway.[3] These electronically controlled cars made appearances at numerous world showcases. During the 1990s, we began to see the transition towards autonomous vehicles of today.
Today
Modern self-driving cars do much more than follow wires placed in the road way. New designs attempt to enable cars to make decisions about routes, safety, and changing lanes. Collectively, these enhancements are referred to as "driver assists" which designates them as distinct from driver replacements and true autonomy. This technology is far more sophisticated than that of previous models, which were controlled by humans on the other end of a remote control.
Autonomous driving systems were deployed by large corporations like Uber and Tesla, Inc. as early as the summer of 2016 [4] and are currently beginning to be adopted. Such systems already require little to no human input while driving on public roadways under certain conditions. These modern vehicles use a combination of radar, GPS, odometers, computer programs, and machine learning to safely navigate roadways.
![](/images/thumb/3/3f/AutonomousDrivingLevels.png/300px-AutonomousDrivingLevels.png)
Future
Levels of Autonomy
Any autonomous driving system is classified by common convention into one of six levels ranging from Level 0 to Level 5, depending on the degree of sophistication of the system. The measure of that sophistication, and thus the metric which determined the appropriate level, is the amount of input and attention required of a human operator in order to safely direct the vehicle.[5]
Level 0
No Automation: The human driver is in charge of all aspects of driving but the vehicle may have warning or minor intervention systems.[5]
Level 1
Driver Assistance: The driver assistance system is in charge of either steering or accelerating and decelerating using driving environment information but the human driver is in charge of all remaining driving tasks.[5]
Level 2
Partial Automation: One or more assistance systems for both steering and accelerating and decelerating using driving environment information but the human driver is in charge of all remaining driving tasks.[5]
Level 3
Conditional Automation: The automated driving system performs all aspects of driving but with a human driver responding to requests to intervene to override the system.[5]
Level 4
High Automation: The automated driving system performs all aspects of driving even in the case where a human driver does not properly respond to a request to intervene and override the system.[5]
Level 5
Full Automation: Complete performance of the automated driving system of all aspects of driving under all road and environment conditions that could be handled by a human driver.[5]
Public Opinion
In a 2011 survey by Accenture, 49% of US and UK consumers stated that they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".[6]
In a 2012 survey by JD Power and Associates, 37% of respondents said they would be interested in purchasing a fully autonomous car. However, that number dropped to 20% when told that the technology would cost more than $3,000.[7]
In a 2014 survey by Insurance.com, over 75% of licensed drivers said they would at least consider buying a self-driving car. This number rose to 86% if their car insurance would be cheaper for an autonomous vehicle. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive anymore if autonomous cars became available.[8]
In a 2015 survey by Delft University of Technology, respondents, on average, found manual driving the most enjoyable mode of driving. 22% of the survey respondents did not want to spend any money for a fully automated driving system, whereas 5% indicated they would be willing to pay more than $30,000. 33% of respondents indicated that fully automated driving would be highly enjoyable. 69% of respondents estimated that fully automated driving will reach a 50% market share between now and the year 2050.[9]
Legislation
With rapid developments still happening in the field of autonomous cars, it is hard for regulatory agencies to make laws about their design and usage. Today, 12 states have enacted legislature pertaining to autonomous vehicles.[10] Most laws in regards to autonomous vehicles are similar to legislation that has been passed in the state of Michigan. Michigan Senate Bill 0169, which was passed in 2013, defines automation:
“Automated technology” means technology installed on a motor vehicle that has the capability to assist, make decisions for, or replace an operator.
Definines what an operator of an autonomous vehicle is:
Sec. 35a. “Operate” or “operating” means 1 or more of the following:
(a) Being in actual physical control of a vehicle. This subdivision applies regardless of whether or not the person is
licensed under this act as an operator or chauffeur.
(b) Causing an automated motor vehicle to move under its own power in automatic mode upon a highway or street
regardless of whether the person is physically present in that automated motor vehicle at that time. This subdivision
applies regardless of whether the person is licensed under this act as an operator or chauffeur. As used in this subdivision,
“causing an automated motor vehicle to move under its own power in automatic mode” includes engaging the automated
technology of that automated motor vehicle for that purpose.
And explains the registration and insurance protocol for such a vehicle.[11] Michigan Senate Bill 0663, also passed in 2013 explains that a manufacturer is free of liability if a third party makes any altercations to a vehicle.[12] Other laws like Tennessee Senate Bill 307 make it illegal for local municipalities to ban the use of autonomous vehicles.[13]
Current Models
Many of the worlds leading automakers along with technologies companies are developing autonomous vehicles or autonomous technology for vehicles. Most estimate that, at the very least, they will be producing a partially autonomous vehicle by 2020. Some companies developing autonomous vehicles include Audi, BMW, Ford, General Motors, Google, Mercedes Benz, Nissan, Tesla, Toyota, Uber, Volkswagen, and Volvo.
Ford
Ford calls themselves one of the pioneers in autonomous vehicle technology and has recently began testing their vehicles at the University of Michigan’s Mcity and conducting real world snow tests [14][15]. Ford has two generations of autonomous vehicles. In 2003 Ford installed LiDAR technology on an F-250 Super Duty for participation in the DARPA challenge. The second generation of testing began in 2011 with the Ford Fusion sedan because of its advanced electrical systems. In January of 2016 Ford announced that it would expand its fleet of autonomous Fusions to 30 vehicles [16].
Google’s self-driving car project, based out of Mountain View, California, began in 2009 and hit the road for testing in 2012 [17]. Currently Google operates two types of autonomous vehicles. The first group is composed of Toyota Priuses and Lexus RX450hs. These vehicles are used by engineers to test driving systems in real world traffic. Google has begun testing a concept car developed in collaboration with Bosch, ZF Lenksysteme, LG, Continental, and Roush [18]. These vehicles are designed without peddles or steering wheels. As part of their concept car experiment Google has asked citizens to submit artwork for their Paint the Town initiative. Artwork has been featured on cars in Mountain View, California, and Austin, Texas. Google expects to have vehicles available for purchase in 2020. The cars still need to undergo testing in both snow and heavy rain [19].
Tesla
Tesla currently sells cars with Enhanced Autopilot and Full Self-Driving Capabilities. The Enhanced Autopilot features cameras and sensors that help the car to match its speed to traffic conditions, stay in a lane, and change lanes without driver input, switch freeways, exit a freeway, self park when near a parking spot, and be summoned to and from a garage. This feature, however, is not fully automatic and a driver should still be in control of the car at all times. The Full Self-Driving Capabilities feature, however, allows the car to fully drive itself. Tesla claims that this technology is estimated to be twice as safe as an average human driver. The system is supposed to be able to complete short and long term trips with no help from a human driver. All you have to do is get into the car and tell it where you want to go. If you do not say anything, the car will automatically look at your calendar and take you where the calendar says you need to be next. If there is nothing on your calendar, it will default to taking you home. The car will find the optimal route and navigate through streets, even without street markings, and traverse stop signs, stop lights, roundabouts, and complex intersections. The car is able to drive on crowded freeways at very fast speeds. Once you get out of the car at your destination, it will search for parking spots and automatically park itself. The user just needs to tap a button on their phone and the car will be recalled to pick them up. [20] This feature is functional due to the 8 sensors around the car that Tesla uses to have a complete 360 visibility around the car at up to 250 meters of range. Twelve ultrasonic sensors are used to complement this 360 view, detecting soft and hard objects at almost twice the distance of the previous system. A forward-facing radar looks in front of the car to cut through fog, heavy rain, dust, and even the car in front of the sensor to provide additional data about the world around the car. [21].
Uber
Uber has tested its self-driving cars, intended to pick up passengers and take them where they needed to go, like the rest of Uber's services. They first intended to test the cars in San Fransisco, California, assuming that the self-driving regulations and $150 permit required for self-driving did not apply to them since there would be drivers in the seat while the testing was happening. California, however, did not agree and told Uber that they needed the permit. In response, Uber pulled the testing and went to Arizona instead, where the governor was happy to have them and asked to be the first test rider in February of 2017. The state overall has not regulated technology and self-driving cars, allowing testing to happen freely. [22] On March 24th, 2017, one of Uber's self-driving cars was involved in a high speed crash in Tempe, Arizona. There were two engineers and no Uber passengers in the vehicle, and nobody was seriously injured. Uber has since pulled all tests while the crash is being investigated. The crash, however, was not the fault of the self-driving car, but the human driven car who crashed into Uber's vehicle. Some see this as an argument for self-driving cars, saying that they are safer than cars driven by humans since humans can be unpredictable. [23] Some say that, as a ride sharing company, Uber needs to figure out self-driving cars in order to stay relevant, keep up with advancing technologies, and continue being a successful company. [24].
GM and Lyft
GM is also working on producing their self-driving cars and hopes to put as many as three hundred more autonomous vehicles on the road. This would give GM what seems to be the biggest fleet of self-driving cars in the United States. They hope to first release their autonomous cars in an on-demand ride share network. GM has partnered with Lyft, a ride sharing company, to produce self driving Bolts to be used for ride sharing purposes. [25] Lyft plans for the majority of their rides to be in self-driving cars by the year 2021, according to their president and co-founder, John Zimmer. Zimmer says that he is unclear who would own these cars if there were no drivers for them and how governments will play into this, but he believes that driverless cars are the future of ride sharing and that ride sharing is the future of driving. Zimmer claims that, by 2025, personal car ownership in the United States will be dead and everyone will be using the driverless ride sharing cars. < Lyft's president says 'majority' of rides will be in self-driving cars by 2021 http://www.theverge.com/2016/9/18/12944506/lyft-self-driving-car-prediction-2021-john-zimmer </ref>. The two companies hope to deploy thousands of the self-driving bolts in the year 2018, which may be the largest test of self-driving cars before 2020. [26]
Toyota
In 2017, Toyota revealed their own take on the self-driving car, the Concept-i. It is a compact car which features an artificial intelligence system named Yui. This system is meant to make the driver and the car safer while still allowing the driver to maintain control of the car. Yui does this by measuring human emotion and responding by performing calming techniques such as turning on the radio or maintaining a conversation with the driver. The driver remains in control unless there is an impending accident situation, in which case Yui will take control of the car. This is a very different system than many of Toyota's competitors, as it is far from a fully autonomous vehicle, choosing to be a Level 2 autonomous system instead. This system is meant to combine the idea of autonomous vehicles preventing crashes with the idea of a robot that can assist people at home, such as Alexa. [27].
Safety Concerns
As company like Google have been able to make their autonomousis cars street legal, a variety of safety concerns have arisen over the presence of self-driving vehicles sharing the road with traditional human driven vehicles. Since 2009, Google's self-driving cars have been involved in a total of sixteen crashes, which have mostly consisted of fender benders. All sixteen crashes were faulted as human error, however, in a 2015 report, the New York Times wrote that the car's tendency to "drive by the book" lead to over maneuvering to prevent collisions, often confusing other human drivers on the road and resulting in the subsequent accidents. [28]
In 2015, the Telsa Motors company enabled an autopilot feature through a software update to existing cars. While CEO Elon Musk claimed that the feature would result in radical improvements for vehicle safety, the company failed to prevent drivers from abusing the feature. While in autopilot mode, the company recommends that drivers keep both hands on the car steering wheel. [29] However, additional constraints had to be enforced after a slew of YouTube videos emerged of drivers using the autopilot feature without their hands on the steering wheel. [30] Currently, regulators have banned Telsa from activating the feature in Hong Kong, and other countries may soon follow suit.
Ethical Concerns
Computer ethicists and informed citizens alike are closely following the development of autonomous cars. With transition from automated to autonomous there are an increased number of decisions that must be made by designers[31].
Responsibility
Much of the legislation relating to autonomous vehicles has related to responsibility. The question is whether consequences from autonomous cars should fall on manufacturers, owners, or others. This debate is furthered when cars are considered autonomous agents and have the ability to learn and change themselves. Product liability laws are one venue of research on this dilemma that places responsibility for defects, injuries, and other unforeseen negative effects of sold products on any entities involved in the manufacture or selling processes. Being as autonomous cars are a tangible product, these laws may provide a framework for how responsibility can be regulated. [32]
Bryant Walker Smith, an assistant law professor at the University of South Carolina, was quoted in April of 2017 saying that the level of automation today is at two or below and that drivers are responsible for crashes in these cases.[33] He went on to say that liability for crashes will move from driver to vehicle as the level of automation rises.
MIT Moral Machine
MIT Moral Machine is a project sponsored by MIT’s Media Lab [34] that poses various ethical dilemmas to gather public opinion on how autonomous vehicles should behave under various life-or-death scenarios. The underlying dilemma is given that an autonomous car must crash, whose life/lives should it save? An example of the dilemma is given that the car must kill either a pedestrian or its passenger, how should it choose?
From their website, the goals of Moral Machine are “1) building a crowd-sourced picture of human opinion on how machines should make decisions when faced with moral dilemmas, and 2) crowd-sourcing assembly and discussion of potential scenarios of moral consequence.”
Pro-passenger argument
In response the question of whether an autonomous vehicle should choose to save a passenger or a pedestrian, some argue that the vehicle should choose to protect its passenger. In October 2016, Mercedes Benz executive Christoph von Hugo commented that, in the future, Mercedes autonomous cars would choose to save its passenger. Their reasoning is that “crash situations, he says, are so chaotic that an A.I. should prioritize the lives it has most direct control of.” [35]
Another argument used in favor of saving the passenger is that people are less likely to use autonomous vehicles if they know that the vehicle won’t choose to save their own life. In a paper published in the journal Science, psychologists found that, of the 2000 respondents to a survey, most people would not be willing to use autonomous cars in this case [36]. If drivers were unwilling to adopt autonomous cars for this reason, society would not achieve the benefit of reduced driving-related accidents that autonomous vehicles promise.
Pro-pedestrian argument
An argument in favor of saving the pedestrian instead of the passenger it is ethically more just to do so. By choosing to ride in the autonomous car, the passenger assumes the risk associated with the ride. Because of this, some argue that they are ethically responsible for bearing any cost that associated with a car crash.
Trolley Problem
The trolley problem, or trolley dilemma, is a thought experiment used be ethicists and designers across many different disciplines. While there are a number of variations on the story goes: there is a runaway trolley headed down a track tow which five people are tied. You however are standing next to a switch which you could throw and reroute the trolley on to a track with only one person tied to it. You can do two things, do nothing and let the trolley kill 5 people, or throw the switch which would result in only one person being killed. This same decision will have to be made by the designers of autonomous vehicles. While we might be faced with same problem while driving an ordinary car down the road it is generally recognized that there is a difference. While driving down the road in a normal car this would be a split section decision made by the driver. With autonomous cars the decisions is far from split second. This leads to the question of who will be making the decision of which path our cars would take. Recently Google’s Chris Urmson has down played the trolley problem as in pertains to self-driving cars [37].
See Also
References
- ↑ Fox, Michelle. Safety of driverless cars, Autos, CNBC, 8 Sep. 2014. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Nguyen, Tuan. History of Self-Driving Cars, ThoughtCo., 30 Nov. 2016. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Quigg, Doc. Reporter Rides Driverless, The Press Courier. 7 Jun. 1960. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Chafkin, Max. Uber's First Self-Driving Fleet Arrives in Pittsburgh This Month., Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 18 Aug. 2016. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 SAE Report on Automated Driving. Rep. no. J3016., SAE International, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ [newsroom.accenture.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=5146 Consumers in US and UK Frustrated with Intelligent Devices That Frequently Crash or Freeze, New Accenture Survey Finds], Accenture, 10 Feb. 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Yvkoff, Liane. Many car buyers show interest in autonomous car tech, Roadshow. CBS Interactive Inc., 27 Apr. 2012. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Autonomous cars: Bring ‘em on, drivers say in Insurance.com survey, Insurance.com, Quinstreet, Inc., 28 Jul. 2014. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Kyriakidis, M., R. Happee, and J.C.F. De Winter. Public Opinion on Automated Driving: Results of an International Questionnaire among 5000 Respondents., ScienceDirect, 15 June 2015. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Listing of Autonomous Vehicle legislation from National Conference of State Legislature http://www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/autonomous-vehicles-legislation.aspx
- ↑ Michigan Senate Bill 169 http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/2013-2014/publicact/pdf/2013-PA-0231.pdf
- ↑ Michigan Senate Bill 663 http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/2013-2014/publicact/pdf/2013-PA-0251.pdf
- ↑ Tennessee Senate Bill 598 http://www.tn.gov/sos/acts/109/pub/pc0307.pdf
- ↑ Ford.com news story featuring MCity https://media.ford.com/content/fordmedia/fna/us/en/news/2015/11/13/ford-first-automaker-to-test-autonomous-vehicle-at-mcity.html
- ↑ Ford.com news article highlighting snow testinghttps://media.ford.com/content/fordmedia/fna/us/en/news/2016/01/11/ford-conducts-industry-first-snow-tests-of-autonomous-vehicles.html
- ↑ Ford.com news story featuring the expansion of their autonomous fleet https://media.ford.com/content/fordmedia/fna/us/en/news/2016/01/05/ford-tripling-autonomous-vehicle-development-fleet--accelerating.html
- ↑ Google Car Homepage https://www.google.com/selfdrivingcar/
- ↑ Google Concept Car Partners http://www.autonews.com/article/20150114/OEM09/150119815/google-in-talks-with-oems-suppliers-to-build-self-driving-cars
- ↑ Google Cars in Snow http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-01-14/google-sees-fielding-selfdriving-car-within-5-years
- ↑ Order a Tesla Model X https://www.tesla.com/modelx/design
- ↑ Full Self-Driving Hardware on All Cars https://www.tesla.com/autopilot
- ↑ Uber’s self-driving cars are now picking up passengers in Arizona http://www.theverge.com/2017/2/21/14687346/uber-self-driving-car-arizona-pilot-ducey-california
- ↑ Uber’s Self-Driving Crash Proves We Need Self-Driving Cars https://www.wired.com/2017/03/uber-self-driving-crash-tempe-arizona/
- ↑ Inside Uber’s self-driving car mess https://www.recode.net/2017/3/24/14737438/uber-self-driving-turmoil-otto-travis-kalanick-civil-war
- ↑ GM plans 300 more self-driving cars http://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/general-motors/2017/04/14/gm-autonomous-fleet/100477110/
- ↑ Edelstein, Stephen. GM, Lyft to road test thousands of self-driving Bolt EVs next year, The Christian Science Monitor, 26 Feb. 2017. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.
- ↑ Toyota exec: 'We are not even close' to fully self-driving cars http://www.businessinsider.com/toyota-gill-pratt-unveils-self-driving-plans-concept-car-at-ces-2017-1
- ↑ Richtel, Matt and Dougherty, Conor. ["Google’s Driverless Cars Run Into Problem: Cars With Drivers" http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/technology/personaltech/google-says-its-not-the-driverless-cars-fault-its-other-drivers.html?_r=0] The New York Times. 01 Septemeber 2015.
- ↑ Statt, Nick. ["Tesla forced to disable autopilot features for Hong Kong owners" http://www.theverge.com/2015/11/20/9770902/tesla-model-s-autopilot-disabled-hong-kong-regulations] The Verge. 20 November 2015.
- ↑ McCormick, Rich. ["Tesla owners are ignoring autopilot safety advice and putting the results on YouTube" http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9589724/tesla-autopilot-videos-youtube-safety-advice-ignored] The Verge. 21 Octber 2015.
- ↑ http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-ethical-dilemma-of-self-driving-cars-patrick-lin
- ↑ http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/04/products-liability-driverless-cars-villasenor#ftn26
- ↑ "Who is liable if a self-driving car crashes? Tesla mishap raises issues" https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2017/04/03/tesla-mishap-raises-issues-self-driving-liability/99880620/
- ↑ http://moralmachine.mit.edu/
- ↑ http://fortune.com/2016/10/15/mercedes-self-driving-car-ethics/
- ↑ http://science.sciencemag.org/content/352/6293/1573
- ↑ https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2015/12/01/googles-leader-on-self-driving-cars-downplays-the-trolley-problem/